CAtlFORNIA     o 


c 

iV 

( 

R 

3 

13 

10  junrnn  SH; 


O    Of  CALIFORNIA 


0  SANTA  BARBARA   ° 


THE 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

OIL  ENGINES 

WITH     FULL    DIRECTIONS     FOR 

ERECTING,    TESTING,    INSTALLING 
RUNNING    AND    REPAIRING 

INCLUDING  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH 

KEROSENE    OIL   ENGINES 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX  ON 

Marine  Oil  Engines 

BY 

A.  H.  GOLDINGHAM 

Member  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  London:  Member  of 

the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers;  Member  of  the 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education. 


FOURTH    EDITION,   ENLARGED 


NEW  YORK: 
SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN,  123-125  Liberty  Street 

LONDON: 
E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  LIMITED,  57  Haymarket,  S.W. 

1914 


THE 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

OF 

OIL  ENGINES 

WITH     FULL    DIRECTIONS    FOR 

ERECTING,    TESTING,    INSTALLING 
RUNNING    AND    REPAIRING 

INCLUDING  DESCRIPTIONS  or  AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH 

KEROSENE    OIL   ENGINES 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX  ON 

Marine  Oil  Engines 

BY 

A.  H.  GOLDINGHAM 

Member  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  London:  Member  of 


ERRATA 
The  numbers  to  Figs.  50  and  51  should  read  51  and  50. 


SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN,  ius-125  liberty  sweet 

LONDON: 
E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  LIMITED,  57  Hayraarket,  S.W. 

19U 


Copyright,  1900. 
Copyright,  1904. 
Copyright,  1910. 
Copyright,  1914. 

By  Arthur  Hugh  Goldingham. 


PREFACE  TO   FOURTH    EDITION 


SINCE  the  publication  of  the  third  edition  of  this 
book  the  remarkable  and  rapid  development  of  large 
marine  oil  engines  for  the  propulsion  of  ocean  going 
and  other  steamers  has  taken  place.  In  order  to  bring 
this  book  thoroughly  up-to-date,  the  preparation  of 
matter  relative  to  such  engines  has  been  necessary. 
This  is  now  presented  in  the  appendix  at  the  end  of 
the  book. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  the  various  publishers 
hereafter  named  for  their  courtesy  in  placing  illustra- 
tions at  his  disposal  for  reproduction  and  for  allowing 
him  to  make  extracts  from  their  descriptive  matter. 
He  also  wishes  to  thank  various  manufacturers  who 
have  placed  at  his  disposal  data  relative  to  their  re- 
spective engines. 

The  illustrations,  etc.,  of  the  Diesel  engine  in  the 
ship  "France"  are  inserted  by  permission  and  courtesy 
of  Engineering,  London,  and  by  permission  of  the 
builders  of  that  engine. 

The  illustrations  of  various  sprayers  or  pulverizers 
and  descriptive  matter  regarding  them  are  given  by 
permission  of  the  publishers  of  Cassiers  Magazine, 
London. 


iv  PREFACE  TO  FOURTH   EDITION 

Extracts  and  illustrations  of  the  Sulzer  and  M.  A. 
N.  engines  are  from  the  address  given  before  the  Am. 
Soc.  of  Mech.  Engineers  by  the  late  Dr.  Rudolf  Diesel 
by  permission  of  that  Society. 

Illustrations  and  descriptive  matter  of  the  Carel 
Freres  engine  have  been  furnished  by  Mr.  Haynie, 
their  United  States  representative. 

The  New  London  Ship  &  Engine  Co.,  Busch  Sulzer 
Bros.  Diesel  Co.,  the  Snow  Pump  Co.  and  the  De  La 
Vergne  Machine  Company  have  each  furnished  in- 
formation regarding  their  respective  engines. 

The  assistance  and  courtesy  extended  by  the  above 
and  others  who  have  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  this 
matter  is  hereby  acknowledged. 


PREFACE   TO    THIRD    EDITION 

THE  previous  editions  being  exhausted  the  third 
edition  of  this  work  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the 
increasing  demand  for  a  reliable  handbook  on  Oil 
Engines. 

Necessary  revisions  in  the  third  edition  have  been 
made  in  an  endeavor  to  completely  cover  the  subject 
both  with  regard  to  Modern  Oil  Engines  as  well  as 
to  those  previously  made.  In  Chapter  I  the  text  of 
some  pages  has  been  changed  with  the  addition  of 
descriptive  matter  and  illustrations  of  Recent  Oil 
Spraying  and  Vaporizing  Devices.  In  Chapter  II  on 
Design  and  Construction  considerable  revision  has 
been  rendered  necessary  to  conform  to  up-to-date 
practice.  Additions  have  been  made  to  Chapter  III  on 
Testing.  Numerous  formulae  have  been  added,  "others 
have  been  changed  while  each  has  been  carefully 
checked  and  compared  with  the  design  of  the  best  and 
most  successful  engines  built.  Other  additions  have 
been  made  -to  Chapters  IV,  V,  and  VI,  as  well  as  to 
Chapters  X,  XII  and  XIII. 

Many  new  illustrations  have  been  prepared  with  the 
greatest  care  regardless  of  cost. 

The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  obligation 
to  all  who  have  assisted  him  in  the  work  of  revision 
and  to  thank  the  different  manufacturers  for  the  in- 
formation, photographs,  diagrams,  etc.,  placed  at  his 
disposal  by  them. 

A.  H.  G. 

NEW  YORK,  December,  1909. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

THE  first  edition  having  been  exhausted,  and  in 
order  to  meet  the  continued  and  increasing  demand  for 
this  work,  a  new  and  larger  edition  is  now  presented. 

It  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  writer  to  embody  in 
the  present  edition  the  most  recent  information  on  the 
subject.  Chapters  on  "Oil  Engine  Troubles,"  "Fuels" 
with  numerous  tables,  and  "Miscellaneous,"  including 
fire  insurance  rules,  have  been  added,  while  large-sized 
oil  engines  and  portable  engines  have  received  a  more 
extended  description. 

Reference  to  all  types  of  engines  has  been  made 
about  which  information  could  be  secured. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Professor  William  Robin- 
son for  permission  to  reproduce  tables  from  "Gas  and 
Petroleum  Engines ;"  also  to  Messrs.  Clifford  Richard- 
son and  E.  C.  Wallace  for  the  matter  given  regarding 
Texas  crude  oil ;  to  the  "Scientific  American"  for 
Fig.  920. 


PREFACE 


THIS  work  has  been  written  with  the  intention  of 
supplying  practical  information  regarding  the  kero- 
sene or  oil  engine,  and  in  response  to  frequent  re- 
quests received  by  the  writer  to  recommend  such  a 
book. 

Whilst  many  works  have  been  published  on  the 
subject  of  gas  engines,  some  of  which  refer  to  or 
describe  the  working  of  .the  oil  engine,  no  other  book, 
it  is  believed,  is  devoted  entirely  to  the  oil  engine 
in  detail. 

The  work,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  useful  to  the 
draughtsman,  the  engine  attendant,  as  well  as  to  those 
who  own  or  are  about  to  install  Oil  Engines. 

The  classification  of  vaporizers  has  been  adhered 
to  as  made  some  few  years  ago,  and  a  representative 
engine  with  each  type  is  described. 

The  matter  on  design  and  construction  is  founded 
on  practical  experience,  the  formulae,  it  is  believed, 
being  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern  practice. 

Chapter  III.  on  Testing  is  based  on  the  writer's 
personal  experience  in  the  testing-room. 


viii  PREFACE. 

The  writer  is  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  George 
Richmond  for  many  valuable  suggestions,  and  also  for 
reading  the  proof-sheets,  and  he  wishes  to  acknowledge 
assistance  from  many  firms,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  Ingersoll  Sargeant  Drill  Company  for 
Table  III.,  Mr.  Frank  Richards  for  Table  II.,  The 
De  La  Vergne  Company  for  Table  IV.,  London 
Engineer,  Tables  V.  and  VI.  Table  I.  is  partly  taken 
from  Mr.  William  Norris's  book  on  the  Gas  Engine, 
and  Tables  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  and  X.,  at  the  end  of  the 
book,  relating  to  different  oils,  are  taken  (with  per- 
mission) from  Mr.  Boverton  Redwood's  valuable 
work  on  Petroleum.  And  to  the  Engineering  News 
for  permission  to  use  Figs.  44^  and  44^.  The  Crosby 
Steam  Gauge  Company  have  also  supplied  informa- 
tion relating  to  the  indicator  and  planimeter. 

A.    H.    GOLDINGHAM. 

NEW  YORK,  November  i,  1900. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY.  PAGE 

Historical — Classification  of  Oil  Engines — Various 
Vaporizers — Different  Igniting  and  Spraying  De- 
vices— The  Different  Cycles  of  Valve  Movements  1-19 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON   DESIGNING  OIL  ENGINES. 

Simplicity  in  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Parts 
—Comparison  of  Oil  and  Gas  Engines — Cyl- 
inders, Different  Types — Cylinder  Clearance — 
Crank-shaft,  Dimensions  and  Formulae — Balanc- 
ing of  Crank-shafts  Described — Connecting-rods, 
Strengths,  etc. — Piston,  Piston-rings — Piston 
speed — Fly-wheels,  Formula  for — Air  and  Ex- 
haust Cams — Cylinder  Lubricators — Valves  and 
Valve-boxes — Velocity  of  Air  through  Valves — 
Crank-shaft  Bearings — Proportions  of  Engine 
Frame — Crank-pin  Dimensions — Valve  Mechan- 
isms, Gearing  and  Levers — Governing  Devices — 
Exhaust  Bends — Oil-supply  Pump — Oil-tank  and 
Filter — Comparison  of  Horizontal  and  Vertical 
Type  Engines,  with  Advantages  of  Each — Two- 
cylinder  Engines  Discussed — Assembling  of  Oil- 
engines—Scraping in  Bearings — Fitting  of  Piston 
and  Piston-rings — Fitting  Connecting-rod  Bear- 
ings— Fitting  Air  and  Exhaust  Valves — Test- 
ing Water-jackets— Fly-wheel  Keys — Oil-supply 
Pipes — Cylinder  Made  in  Two  or  More  Parts,  ..  20-58 
ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

TESTING   ENGINES. 

PAGE 

Object  of  Testing— Comparison  with  Steam-engines — 
Different  Records  to  be  Taken — Diagram  for  set- 
ting Valves — Preparing  for  Test — Heating  of  Va- 
po'rizer — Starting — Difficulties  of  Starting — Com- 
pression, How  to  Test — Leakage  of  Valves  and 
Cylinder — Lubrication  of  Piston  and  Bearings — 
Easing  Piston — Synonymous  Terms  for  Power  De- 
veloped— Indicated  Horse-power — Brake,  Horse- 
power— Indicator  Fully  Described — Reducing 
Motions — Planimeters — Indicator-cards  described 
in  Detail  and  Analyzed — Defects  as  Shown  by 
Indicator — How  to  Remedy  Same — Early  and 
Late  Ignition,  How  to  Alter — The  Compression 
and  Expansion  Lines — Choked  Exhaust — Mean 
Effective  Pressure,  How  to  Increase — Back  Pres- 
sure of  Exhaust — Tachometers — Fuel-consump- 
tion Test  Fully  Described— Mechanical  Efficiency 
— Thermal  Efficiency — Table  of  Disposition  of 
Heat — Valve  Diagram— Exhaust  Gases — Complete 
and  Incomplete  Combustion — Testing  the  Flash- 
point of  Kerosene — Viscosometer, 59-95 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COOLING   WATER-TANKS   AND  OTHER  DETAILS. 

Water  Connections— Capacity  of  Tanks  Required — 
Gravitation  System  of  Circulation — Water-pumps 
— Connection  to  City  Water  Main — Temperature 
of  Outlet  Water— Emptying  Pipes  in  Frosty 
Weather— Salt  Water— Exhaust  Silencers— Brick 
Pit,  How  to  Construct— Exhaust-Gas  Deodorizer, 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

How  to  Connect — Connecting  Circulating  Water 
to  Exhaust-pipe — Self-starters,  Why  Necessary 
— Utilizing  Waste  Heat  of  Exhaust  Gases  and  of 
Cooling  Water,  Different  Methods— Exhaust 
Temperature,  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  96-110 


CHAPTER  V. 

OIL  ENGINES   DRIVING  DYNAMOS. 

Isolated  Plants — Advantages  of  Oil  Engines  as  Com- 
pared with  Gas  and  Steam  Engines — Installation 
of  Plant — Foundation,  How  to  Build,  Ingredients 
— Correct  Location  of  Engine  and  Dynamo — 
Belts — Balance-wheel  on  Armature  Shaft — Power 
Required  for  Incandescent  and  Arc  Lamps — 
Losses  of  Power  by  Belt  and  Otherwise — Regu- 
lation of  Engine  Required  for  Electric  Lighting — 
Direct-connected  Plants,  Advantages  of  Same — 
Variations  in  Incandescent  Lights,  Causes,  How 
to  Remedy — Silencing  Air-suction,  ..  ..  ..  111-122 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS,  WATER-PUMPS,  ETC. 

Direct-connected  and  Geared  Air-compressing  Outfits, 
with  Dimensions  and  Pressures  Obtained — Calcu- 
lations of  Horse-power  Required — Tables  of  Pres- 
sures and  Other  Data — Efficiencies  at  Different 
Altitudes — Pumping  Outfits  Described  in  Detail, 
with  Dimensions — How  to  Calculate  Horse-power 
Required — Oil  Engines  Driving  Ice  and  Refrig- 
erating Machines,  Calculations  of  Power  Required 
— Friction-clutches,  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  123-138 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  RUNNING  OIL  ENGINES. 

PAGE 

General  Instructions  and  Remarks — Cylinder  Lubri- 
cating Oil — Instructions  in  Detail  as  to  Running 
Hornsby-Akroyd  Type,  the  Crossley  Type,  the 
Campbell  Type,  and  the  Priestman  Type  of  Oil 
Engine — General  Remarks— Regulation  of  Speed 
— How  to  Reverse  Direction  of  Running  of  En- 
gine, with  Diagrams  of  Valve  Settings,  ..  ..  139-156 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

REPAIRS. 

Drawing  Piston — Taking  Off  Piston-ring — Grinding 
in  of  Valves — Adjustment  of  Crank-shaft  and 
Connecting-rod  Bearings— How  to  Fit  New 
Piston-ring  to  Cylinder — Fitting  New  Skew  and 
Spur  Gear — Renewing  Governor  Parts,  ..  ..  157-160 

CHAPTER  IX. 

OIL  ENGINE   TROUBLES. 

Ignition  —  Electrical  Connections — Tube  Igniter  — 
Automatic  Igniter— Oil  Supply— Air  Supply — 
Knocking— Loss  of  Power — Piston  Blowing- 
Explosions  in  Silencer — Water  Leakage,  . .  . .  161-167 


CONTENTS.-  XH1 

CHAPTER  X. 

VARIOUS   ENGINES    DESCRIBED. 

PAGE 

General  Description,  with  Illustrations  of  Different 
American  and  English  Oil  Engines — Method 
of  Working — Sectional  Cuts — The  Crossley — The 
Cundall— The  Campbell— The  Priestman— The 
Mietz  &  Weiss— The  Hornsby-Akroyd— The 
Diesel — The  Rites  Governor — Britannia  Co.'s 
Engine — International  Power  Co. — The  Barker,  168-199 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PORTABLE   ENGINES. 

General  Description  of  Portable  Oil  Engines — Por- 
table Electric  Lighting— Water  Cooling  Appa- 
ratus—Crossley— Mietz  &  Weiss— Portable  Air 
Compressor — Hornsby-Akroyd  Traction  Engine,  200-205 

CHAPTER  XII. 

LARGE    SIZED    ENGINES. 

Comparison  of  Cycles — Relative  Cost  of  Installation 
and  Operation  of  Steam,  Gas,  and  Oil  Engines 
— Mietz  &  Weiss — Diesel — Hornsby-Akroyd — 
Sectional  Views— Tests— Use  of  Crude  Oil- 
Moore  &  Co.  Vaporizer  or  Producer — Fair- 
banks Morse  Engine,  206-229 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

FUELS. 

Description  of  Various  Fuels — Beaumont  Crude  Oil 
—Russian  and  American  Crude  Oil — Analyses — 
Various  Tables — California  Crude-Fuel  Oil,  . .  230-240 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

PAGE 

Comparison  of  U.  S.  and  American  Measures  and 
Weights-Various  Tables-Fire  Insurance- 
Tests  of  Various  Engines, ••  241-251 


TABLES 

PAGE 

I.     Sizes  of  Crank-shafts,         27 

II.     Various   Air   Pressures, 126-127 

III.  Efficiencies   of   Air   Compressors   at   Differ- 

ent   Altitudes,        129 

IV.  Mean      Pressure      of      Diagram      of      Gas 

(Ammonia)     Compressor, 135 

V.     Tests    of    Priestman    Oil    Engine,       . .       . .  178 
VI.     Tests  of  25   B.  H.  P.     Hornsby-Akroyd   Oil 

Engine,           186 

VII.     Relative  Cost  of  Installation  and  Operation, 

Gas,   Steam  and  Oil   Engines,       . .       . .  209 

VIII.     Tests  of  Diesel  Engine, 220 

IX.     Characteristics  of  Oils,       234 

X.     Beaumont  Oil, 234 

XI.) 

XII.  v  Characteristics   of   Different   Oils,      . .       . .  235 

XIII.  ) 

XIV.  Calorific  Power  of  Various  Descriptions  of 

Petroleum, 236 

XV.     Composition,    Physical    Properties,    etc.,    of 

Various  Descriptions  of  Petroleum,      . .  237 

XVI.     Oil  Fuel, 238 

XVII.     Calorific    Power    of    Crude    Petroleum,      ..  238 

XVIII    ) 
VTV   >      Tests  of  Various  Oil  Engines        . .       . .    248-251 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Abel  Oil-tester 91 

Air-compressing   Outfit,    Portable         ....  204 
American  Oil  Engine  Co.'s  Engine       .         .         .          195,  196 

Apparatus  for  Open  Fire  Test           ....  91 

Automatic  Air  Inlet- Valve           .....  41 

Barker    Engine '      .          197,  198 

Beau  de  Rochas   Cycle,  Diagram         ....  16 

Britannia  Co.'s  Engine,  Sectional  Views     to  face  page  192 

Campbell  Diagrams      .         ...         .         .         .         .  174 

Campbell  Vaporizer     .         ...       to  face  page  12 

Campbell  Type  Engine          ......  173 

Cams,  Air  and  Exhaust                                 to  face  page  36 

Connecting-rods             .         ...       to  face  page  ^30 

Connecting-rod    Bearings      ......  159 

Connecting-rod,   Phosphor-bronze         ....  31 

Cooling  Water  Tower                                    to  face  page  98 
Cooling  Water  Tower  and  Radiator    .       to  face  page  99 
Cooling  Radiator  with  Electrically  Operated  Fan  At- 
tachment        .         .         .         .         .       to  face  page  99 

Crank-shaft  bearing      .         .         .         .     to  face  pages  40,  54 

Crank-shafts,   Balanced                                   to  face  page  28 

Crank-shafts,  Slab  Type 27 

Crosby  Indicator           .......  68 

Crossley  Diagrams       .  .      .         .  .       .         .         .         .  170 

Crossley  Vaporizer       .  .      .  r      .         .     to  face  pages  4,  6 

Crossley  Type  Engine           ......  169 

Crossley  New  Type  Engine          .         .       to  face  page  170 

Cundall  Type  Engine 171 

Cylinders to  face  page  32 

Cylinders to  face  page  26 


Xviii  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 
De  la  Vergne  Engine,  Sectional  Views,  to  face  pages  227,  228 

De  la  Vergne  Vertical  Type 183 

De  la  Vergne  Vertical  Type  and  Air  Compressor        .  128 

De  la  Vergne  Indicator  Diagram          ....  186 

De  la  Vergne  Indicator  Diagram         .         .         .         228,  229 

Diagram  of  H.  P.  for  Air  Compressing       .         .         .  130 

Diagram  of  Valve-settings  .         .         ...         .         .  60 

Diagrams,  Reversing  Engine  and  Cams        .         .         .  155 

Diesel  Motor 213,  214,  216,  219 

Diesel  Motor,  Indicator  Diagram          ....  218 

Diesel  Motor,  Sectional  View       .         .       to  face  page  212 
Direct-connected     Air-compressing     Plant     (Sectional 

View)             124 

Dynamo  Fly-wheel 116 

Electric  Spark  Igniters  to  face  page 

Engine  and  Dynamo,  Belt-driven          .         .         .         .  112 

Engine  and  Refrigerating  Machine       ....  132 

Engine  Connected  to  Water-pump        .       to  face  page  129 

Engine  Connected  to  Water-pump,  Small  Type     .  131 

Engine  Foundation       .         .         .         .         .         .         .  114 

Exhaust  Silencing  Pit          ......  101 

Exhaust  Washing  Device     ......  102 

Fly-wheels    .         .         .         .         .         .to  face  page  34 

Foundation  and  Oil  Tank                              to  face  page  114 

Friction-clutch      .                           138 

Geared  Air-Compressing  Plant     .         .       to  face  page  126 

Governors                                                          to  face  page  48 

Governors.  Centrifugal  Type        .         .       to  face  page  44 

Governor,  Hit-and-miss  Type       .....  47 

Heating  Lamp      .         ...         .         .         .         .         .  142 

Heating  Arrangement           .         ...         .         .         .  109 

Hill  Self-recording  Speed  Counter       ....  85 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine  and  Dynamo          .           118,  187,  188 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Horizontal  Type        .       to  face  page  182 

Hornsby-Akroyd,  Sectional  View         .       to  face  page  212 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Sprayer     .         .         .       to  face  page  10 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  XIX 

PAGE 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Vaporizer           .         .       to  face  page  2 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Vertical  Type 187 

Hornsby-Akroyd  125  H.   P.           .          .       to  face  page  2IO 
Hornsby-Akroyd  250  H.   P.  CXI    Engine   Direct    Con- 
nected to  Compressor                             to  face  page  124 
Indicator  Cock      ........  66 

Indicator  Cards,  Various                               to  face  page  24 

Indicator  Diagram        ........  76 

Indicator  Diagram        .......  77 

Indicator  Diagram        .......  79 

Indicator  Diagram        .......  80 

Indicator  Diagram        .......  82 

Indicator  Diagram,  Light   Spring          ....  89 

Indicator  Diagram,  Varying  Pressures          ...  46 

Indicator  Diagrams,  Hornsby-Akroyd           .         .         .  184 

Indicator,  Reducing  Motion          .....  67 

Johnston  Oil  Engine    .         ...       to  face  page  190 

Johnston  Oil  Engine  Diagram     .          .          .          .          .  191 

Lucke  &  Verplank  Vaporizer       .         .       to  face  page  16 

Lubricator    .........  58 

Mietz  &  Weiss  Oil  Consumption  Diagram  .         .         .  179 

Mietz  &  Weiss,  Indicator  Diagram      ....  181 

Mietz  &  Weiss  Engine  and  Dynamo,  Direct  connected  120 
Mietz  &  Weiss  Type  Engine        .   to  face  pages  178,  180,  210 

Oil  Engine  with  Testing  Apparatus  Applied        .         .  62 

Oil-filter 49 

Oil-pump       .........  144 

Oil-Supply  Pumps                                           to  face  page  50 

Pistons,  Section  of                 .         .         .to  face  page  32 

Piston  with   Piston-rings      ...         .          .          .         .  56 

Planimeters      9.         .   -     .         .         .         .         .         .  72 

Planimeter  in  position           ......  74 

Portable  Electric  Lighting  Outfit          .       to  face  page  202 

Portable  Oil  Engine 202,  203 

Priestman  Engine          .......  176 

Priestman  Indicator  Diagrams     .....  177 


XX  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Priestman  Sprayer        ........  14 

Priestman  Vaporizer 13 

Rites  Governor     ........  189 

Self-starter  .........  106 

Silencing  Device            .......  104 

Sprayers,  Oil         .         .         .         .         .     to  face  pages  14,  16 

Spur-gearing 44 

Starting  Cam 143 

Tachometer 84 

Tachometer,  portable 85 

Testing  Apparatus        .         .         .              to  face  pages  64,  65 

Testing  Oil-pump         .......  147 

Traction  Engine  .         .         .         .         .       to  face  page  204 

Two-cycle  Plan    ........  17 

Valve-box     ......       to  face  page  38 

Valve-closing  Springs                                     to  face  page  42 

Valve-levers 146 

Valve  Mechanism         .......  44 

Valves,  Air  and  Exhaust      ......  42 

Vaporizer,  C.  C.  Moore  &  Co.     ....         222,  224 

Vaporizer,   Fairbanks-Morse         .         .       to  face  page  224 

Viscosometer        ........  94 

Water-circulating  Pump       ......  102 

Water-cooling  Tank  and  Connections  ....  97 

Worm  Gear          ........  43 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY— VAPORIZERS,  SPRAYERS, 
IGNITORS,  CYCLES,  ETC. 

THE  oil  engines  treated  of  herein  are  internal  com- 
bustion engines  burning  kerosene,  fuel  oil  or  crude 
oil,  petroleum,  coal  oil,  distillate,  paraffine,  etc.  Such 
fuels  have  a  specific  gravity  varying  from  78°  to  96°  or 
50°  Beaume  to  14°  Beaume  and  have  a  flashpoint  from 
75°  to  300°  Fahr.  The  oil  engines  described  are 
chiefly  self-contained,  that. is,  they  are  gas  engines  with 
the  addition  of  a  vaporizing  apparatus  which  can  con- 
vert the  fuels  above  referred  to,  either  in  the  crude 
state  as  it  issues  from  the  ground,  or  in  a  semi-re- 
fined or  refined  state  into  vapor  or  gas  within  either 
the  vaporizers  or  cylinders,  ignite  it  with  the  conse- 
quent evolution  of  the  heat  stored  in  the  fuel  and  con- 
vert same  into  power. 

The  use  of  heavy  oil  for  producing  power  in  internal 
combustion  engines  appears  to  have  received  the  at- 
tention of  inventors  as  early  as  1790,  though  no  satis- 
factory practical  kerosene  or  crude-oil  engine  is  re- 
corded as  having  been  made  until  about  1870.  Those 
engines  using  the  lighter  grade  fuels,  such  as  benzine, 
gasoline,  or  naphtha,  were  commonly  used  previous 
to  the  invention  of  the  kerosene-oil  engine.  The  prob- 


2  OIL    ENGINES 

lem  of  efficiently  producing  a  vapor  and  suitable  ex- 
plosive mixture  of  air  with  such  vapor,  from  these 
light  oils  was  comparatively  a  simple  matter. 

With  the  engine  required  to  consume  crude  oil  or  the 
other  fuels  above  named  having  a  higher  boiling  point 
than  gasoline  and  requiring  different  treatment  to  en- 
sure proper  vaporization  and  to  consume  all  parts  of 
the  heavier  fuels,  the  problem  of  developing  an  appa- 
ratus to  operate  satisfactorily  under  all  conditions  and 
under  changing  loads  was  more  complex. 

The  following  descriptions  will  show  how  efficiently 
and  satisfactorily  the  present  engines  operate. 

IGNITERS. — The  first  oil  engines  built  had  their 
charge  of  vaporized  oil  and  air  ignited  by  means  of 
the  flame  igniter,  which  has,  however,  now  entirely 
given  place  to  the  four  following  means  of  ignition : 

(a)   Hot  surface  ignition,  aided  by  compression. 

(6)   Hot  tube. 

(c)  Electric  igniter. 

(d)  High  compression  only. 

The  first-named  type  of  igniter  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  I. 
In  this  instance  the  heated  walls  of  the  vaporizer  act 
as  the  igniter,  aided  by  the  heat  generated  during  com- 
pression of  the  gases.  The  chamber  being  first  heated, 
afterward  the  proper  temperature  is  maintained  by  the 
heat  caused  by  the  internal  combustion  of  the  gases. 
The  best-known  vaporizer  and  igniter  of  this  type  is 
that  in  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  Oil  Engine.  Various 
other  somewhat  similar  devices  in  which  sufficient  heat 
is  maintained  to  cause  ignition  automatically  are  also 
now  being  made. 

The  second  type,  that  of  the  hot  tube,  is  shown  in 


5  6 


INTRODUCTORY.  3 

Figs.  2  and  3.  This  igniter  consists  simply  of  a 
porcelain  or  metal  tube  fitted  into  the  vaporizer  or 
cylinder  wall.  It  is  closed  at  one  end,  the  other  end 
being  open  to  the  cylinder.  It  is  heated  by  a  lamp, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3,  over  part  of  its  length. 
When  compression  due  to  the  inward  stroke  of  the 
piston  takes  place  in  the  cylinder  the  explosive  mixture 
is  compressed  into  the  tube  and  is  ignited  by  coming 
in  contact  with  the  heated  portion  of  it.  Porcelain  or 
nickel-steel  tubes  are  preferable  to  wrought  iron,  all 
of  which  substances  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  electric  igniter,  which  is  at  present  more  largely 
used  for  gas  and  gasoline  engines  than  for  oil  engines, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Those  illustrated  are  known  as 
the  "jump-spark"  and  the  make-and-break  types. 

The  jump-spark  (Fig.  4)  is  preferred  for  high 
speeds,  as  it  has  no  moving  parts  inside  the  cylinder. 
With  this  type  the  igniter  plug  containing  the  termi- 
nals is  screwed  into  the  cylinder  cover.  The  method 
of  making  electrical  connections  is  shown  in  principle 
at  Fig.  4.  Connection  is  made  from  the  battery 
through  the  primary  circuit  of  the  Rhumkorff  or  spark 
coil  to  the  completely  insulated  spring  which  is  operated 
by  the  cam.  The  other  connection  passes  from  the 
battery  to  the  other  spring  operated  by  the  cam-shaft 
or  other  moving  part  of  the  engine.  The  electrodes  or 
terminals  of  the  plug  are  connected  to  the  secondary 
circuit.  In  operation  where  a  vibrator  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  spark  coil  the  cam  at  the  proper  time 
of  sparking  closes  the  circuit,  causing  a  series  of  sparks 
to  jump  across  the  terminals  in  the  cylinder  and  ignite 
the  gases. 


4  OIL    ENGINES. 

The  make-and-break  type  of  igniter  is  shown  in 
Fig.  40.  This  type  consists  of  one  well-insulated  sta- 
tionary terminal  and  one  terminal  H  mechanically 
operated.  The  ignition  is  caused  by  the  separation  of 
the  two  terminals,  which  produces  a  spark  between 
them.  Fig.  40  shows  this  igniter  in  connection  with  a 
magneto  oscillator,  which  is  frequently  employed  to 
furnish  electrical  current  instead  of  the  battery.  With 
this  apparatus  the  current  is  generated  by  the  quick 
movement  of  the  inductor,  which  takes  the  place  of 
the  armature  in  the  ordinary  dynamo,  and  which  is 
caused  to  partly  revolve  by  movement  of  the  arm  suit- 
ably actuated  from  the  cam-shaft  or  other  moving  part 
of  the  engine.  The  magneto  is  a  very  simple  device, 
consisting  only  of  stationary  steel  magnets  K,  a  cast- 
iron  inductor  which  takes  the  place  of  the  ordinary 
armature,  and  two  coils  imbedded  in  the  frame.  The 
action  is  as  follows :  The  inductor  arm  C  is  raised  by 
the  roller  A  on  the  disc  B  attached  to  cam-shaft. 
The  spring  D,  shown  in  Fig.  40,  is  compressed.  When 
the  arm  is  released  the  inductor  has  a  quick,  oscillating 
motion,  caused  by  spring  D,  which  produces  a  strong 
electrical  current.  This  current  passes  through  con- 
nection /  to  insulated  igniter  point,  and  through  the 
movable  electrode  G  back  to  the  induction  apparatus. 
The  movement  of  inductor  lever  by  the  heavy  spring 
allows  the  collar  on  rod  E  to  hit  the  arm  attached  to 
movable  electrode,  thus  separating  the  two  electrodes 
and  causing  a  spark  to  pass  between  them. 

A  spark  plug  is  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  4&,  made 
by  A.  W.  King.  Advantages  are  claimed  for  this  type 


INTRODUCTORY.  5 

of  plug  because  of  the  increased  sparking  surface  of 
the  terminal,  which  is  formed  of  an  inner  knife-edged 
disc  placed  concentric  within  a  thick-wall  chamber, 
which  constitutes  the  outer  terminal.  Other  forms  of 
electrical  igniters  are  the  New  Standard  and  the  Split- 
dorf  jump-spark  apparatus. 

The  fourth-named  type  of  ignition,  that  due  to  com- 
pression in  the  cylinder  alone,  is  found  only  with  the 
Diesel  motor. 

Advantages  are  claimed  for  each  of  these  igniting 
devices  by  the  various  manufacturers  using  them.  The 
electrical  igniter  is  easily  controlled  and  is  reliable,  but 
the  batteries  in  unskilled  hands  sometimes  give 
trouble,  and  it  is  essential  that  the  parts  forming  the 
contacts  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  condition. 

The  tube  igniter  always  requires  heating  by  the  ex- 
ternal heating  lamp,  upon  which  it  is  dependent,  like 
all  types  of  vaporizers  which  require  external  heat;  so 
likewise  is  also  the  tube  dependent  entirely  upon  it. 
The  former  difficulty  with  ignition  tubes  and  their 
frequent  bursting  has  now  been  minimized  by  the  use 
of  nickel  alloy,  porcelain  or  other  material  more  suit- 
able than  wrought  iron  for  this  purpose. 

The  hot  surface  type  of  igniter  formerly  gave  trouble 
caused  by  its  temperature  cooling  down  at  light  loads. 
This  type,  however,  which  has  now  been  adopted  in 
various  forms,  has  been  designed  to  overcome  this  dif- 
ficulty, and  can  now  be  relied  upon  to  keep  hot  when 
running  at  light  loads. 

VAPORIZERS. — As  already  stated,  the  problem  of 
efficiently  vaporizing  petroleum  was  the  most  difficult 
feature  to  encounter  in  designing  oil  engines. 


6  OIL    ENGINES. 

The  present  universal  use  of  heavy  oil  engines  is  com- 
plete evidence  of  how  any  former  difficulty  has 
been  thoroughly  overcome,  and  examination  of  the 
various  modern  vaporizers  shows  extreme  simplicity 
in  operation. 

The  fuels  used  in  the  oil  engines  here  discussed 
(crude  oil,  kerosene,  etc.),  in  order  to  be  properly 
vaporized,  require  to  be  broken  up  into  the  form  of 
mist  or  oil  vapor  by  spraying,  or  by  a  current  of  air, 
and  then  heated  to  a  temperature  above  the  boiling 
point.  The  oil  vapor  must  then  be  thoroughly  mixed 
with  air,  in  order  to  procure  complete  combustion.  This 
process  is  performed  by  various  methods,  as  is  shown 
in  the  following  description  of  vaporizers. 

The  composition  of  various  fuels  is  discussed  in 
Chapter  XIII. 

Several  oil  engines  having  a  method  of  vaporization 
are  now  made  where  the  oil  is  injected  directly  into 
the  cylinder  or  where  it  is  inhaled  with  the  air,  and 
where  both  are  closely  regulated  similar  to  the  Priest- 
man  type  of  oil  engine.  The  mixture  of  oil  vapor  and 
air  being  carried  on  by  compression  in  the  cylinder, 
ignition  is  caused  by  an  electric  or  tube  igniter.  The 
heat  from  the  exhaust  is  utilized  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  chamber  through  which  the  oil  passes  to 
the  cylinder,  which,  with  the  heat  caused  by  compres- 
sion, is  sufficient  to  cause  vaporization  and  a  proper 
mixing  with  the  air  to  form  an  explosive  mixture,  the 
chamber,  which  is  heated  by  the  exhaust  in  operation 
being  first  heated  by  a  lamp. 

Theoretically,  the  amount  of  air  required  for  each 


INTRODUCTORY.  7 

pound  of  kerosene  or  oil  vapor  is  approximately  200 
cubic  feet  at  60°  Fahr.  atmospheric  pressure.  From 
calculation  of  the  amount  of  air  taken  into  the  cylinder, 
it  will,  however,  be  noted  that  this  amount  in  practice 
is  much  greater.  In  some  instances  it  is  more  than 
twice  lhat  amount,  or  400  cubic  feet.  This  greater 
volume  of  air  is  required  owing  to  the  presence  in  the 
cylinder,  in  operation,  of  a  residue  of  the  burnt 
products  of  previous  explosions  and  to  other  impuri- 
ties causing  the  efficient  combustion  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  with  the  oil  vapor  to  be  somewhat  retarded. 

A  method  of  starting  the  oil  engine  has  of  recent 
years  been  used  in  which  alcohol,  gasoline,  or  naphtha 
is  burnt  for  a  few  minutes  instead  of  kerosene.  This 
method  is  advantageous  in  that  the  engine  when  cold 
can  be  started  without  the  use  of  external  heater.  The 
lighter  fuel  is  supplied  to  the  vaporizer  or  cylinder  un- 
til the  vaporizing  attachment  has  become  heated  by  in- 
ternal combustion  to  the  temperature  necessary  for 
vaporizing  the  heavier  fuel ;  then  the  fuel  supply  is 
changed,  the  supply  of  lighter  fuel  being  stopped. 
Where  an  automatic  igniter  or  vaporizer  of  Type  4 
is  used  an  independent  electric  igniter  is  employed  to 
ignite  the  gases,  and  which  is  only  in  action  until  the 
vaporizer  is  heated. 

The  different  types  of  vaporizers  have  been  classified 
as  follows : 

I.  The  vaporizer  into  which  the  charge  of  oil  is 
injected  by  a  spraying  nozzle  being  connected  to  cylin- 
der through  a  valve. 


8  OIL   ENGINES. 

2.  That  into  which  the  oil  is  injected,  together  with 
some  air,  the  larger  volume  of  air,  however,  entering 
the  cylinder  through  separate  valve. 

3.  That  vaporizer  in  which  the  oil  and  all  the  air 
supply  (passing  over  it)  is  injected,  but  being  without 
spraying  device. 

4.  The  type  into  which  oil  is  injected  directly,  air 
being  drawn  into  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  separate 
valve,  the  explosive  mixture  being  formed  only  with 
compression. 

With  each  type  of  vaporizer  some  advantage  is 
claimed,  but  corresponding  disadvantage  can  perhaps 
be  named.  For  instance,  in  type  i,  though  the  mixture 
of  oil  and  air  is  more  complete,  and  the  vaporizing 
probably  greater  than  in  the  other  types,  yet  the  system 
of  having  an  explosive  mixture  at  any  other  place  than 
in  the  cylinder  and  at  any  other  period  than  at  the 
time  of  actual  ignition  may  be  urged  as  a  great  dis- 
advantage to  this  system. 

With  class  4  the  mixture  of  air  and  oil  may  not  be 
so  complete,  and  the  initial  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
consequent  upon  explosion  less  than  the  pressure  ob- 
tained with  other  types ;  yet  the  extreme  simplicity  of 
this  type  is  an  advantage  in  daily  use  which  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

With  class  2  the  highest  mean  effective  pressure  is 
obtained  and  the  lowest  consumption  of  oil  per  H.  P. 
is  recorded,  but  where  a  heating  lamp  burning  con- 
tinuously is  required  then  on  the  heating  lamp  depends 
the  efficiency  of  the  engine  itself. 

LUCRE  AND  VERPLANK  VAPORIZER. — An  apparatus 
for  vaporizing  crude  or  fuel  oil  is  shown  at  Fig.  Jc ;  it 
consists  of  a  chamber  containing  liquid  fuel  surrounded 


FIG.  46. 


FIG.  40. 


FIG.  4. 


(To  face  p.  8) 


INTRODUCTORY.  9 

by  an  exhaust  heating  jacket.  The  fuel  is  maintained 
at  a  temperature  corresponding  to  its  boiling  point,  and 
freely  gives  up  vapor  without  overheating  or  carboniz- 
ing. The  piping  arrangement  allows  liquid  oil  to  be 
constantly  present  in  the  chamber.  The  fuel  enters  at 
the  bottom,  and  after  vaporization,  some  is  blown  off 
through  the  connection  leading  to  the  condenser  while 
the  rest  enters  a  mixing  and  proportioning  valve  sup- 
plying the  engine  with  correct  clean  explosive  mixture. 
If  the  load  on  the  engine  does  not  require  the  full 
amount  of  vapor,  it  is  condensed.  The  lower  blow-off 
cock  allows  the  liquid  residue  carbon  to  be  disposed  of 
when  crude  or  fuel  oils  are  used.  When  using  dis- 
tillate, kerosene,  etc.,  the  blow-off  is  dispensed  with. 
Fig.  yc  shows  the  pressure  type  of  vaporizer,  but  by 
breaking  the  pipe  between  condenser  and  feed  and  in- 
serting a  constant  level  open  cap,  vapor  is  generated  at 
atmospheric  pressure,  then  one  or  both  check  valves 
are  omitted. 

THE  HORNSBY-AKROYD  vaporizer  is  shown  at  Fig. 
I,  and  also  as  it  is  at  present  manufactured  in  Fig.  76, 
which  illustrates  a  complete  section  of  this  engine. 
The  oil  in  this  method  of  vaporizing  is  injected 
through  the  spray  nipple,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  directly 
into  the  vaporizer  by  the  oil-supply  pump.  The  injec- 
tion of  oil  into  the  vaporizer  takes  place  only  during 
the  air-suction  stroke.  The  lever  which  actuates  the 
air-valve  also  simultaneously  operates  the  oil-pump. 
When  the  piston  is  at  the  outward  end  of  the  cylinder, 
the  suction  period  being  then  completed,  the  cylinder 
is  filled  with  atmospheric  air,  and  the  vaporizing 
chamber,  which  is  at  all  times  open  to  the  cylinder,  is 
also  at  the  same  time  filled  with  oil  vapor. 

The  compression   stroke  of  the  piston  then  com- 


IO  OIL  ENGINES. 

mences;  the  atmospheric  air  in  the  cylinder  is  thus 
driven  through  the  contracted  opening  between  the 
cylinder  and  the  vaporizer  into  the  vaporizer  itself,  al- 
ready filled  with  the  oil  vapor.  The  oil  enters  the 
vaporizer  in  the  form  of  a  thin  spray  or  sprays  and 
impinges  on  the  cast-iron  vaporizer  wall  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  and  then  forms  a  vapor  which  afterwards 
mixes  with  air.  Two  forms  of  oil  injectors  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration,  Fig.  5a  being  that 
used  in  connection  with  the  later  type  of  Hornsby- 
Akroyd  vaporizer,  which  is  partly  water- jacketed;  in 
this  type  a  circular  passage  is  made  through  the 
water- jacketed  part  of  the  vaporizer,  into  which  the 
oil-spray  sleeve  is  fitted.  The  water  circulating  around 
the  vaporizer  maintains  the  whole  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. Fig.  5  shows  the  older  type  of  oil  inlet  sleeve 
and  sprayer.  Another  form  of  oil  injector  made  by 
the  English  makers  of  this  engine  is  shown  at  Fig.  95. 
In  this  type  the  water  jacket  is  eliminated,  the  heat  be- 
ing carried  away  by  the  surrounding  air  and 
by  the  fuel  passing  through  it  as  it  is  pumped  to  the 
vaporizer.  The  steel  spray  nozzle  in  this  type  is  a 
loose  piece,  being  held  in  place  by  the  pressure  of  the 
studs  holding  the  sleeve  containing  the  valve  against 
the  vaporizer.  After  the  oil  is  injected  into  the 
vaporizer  the  compression  stroke  commences  as  this 
proceeds;  the  mixture,  which  at  first  is  too 
rich  to  explode  in  the  vaporizer,  gradually  becomes 
more  diluted  with  the  air,  and  when  the  com- 
pression stroke  is  completed  the  mixture  of  oil,  vapor 
and  air  attains  proper  explosive  proportions.  The 
mixture  is  then  ignited  simply  by  the  hot  walls  of  this 


FIG.  5. 


(To  face  />.  10.) 


INTRODUCTORY.  •         II 

same  vaporizing  chamber  and  also  by  the  heat  gener- 
ated by  compression.  No  other  means  of  ignition  is 
necessary.  No  heating  lamp  is  required  to  maintain 
the  necessary  temperature  of  this  vaporizer ;  a  lamp 
is,  however,  required  to  heat  it  for  a  few  minutes 
before  starting. 

THE  CROSSLEY  method  of  vaporizing.  This  vapor- 
izer is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  2.  It  consists  of  three 
main  parts,  the  body,  the  passages,  and  the  chimney 
cover.  There  are  no  valves  about  the  vaporizer  itself ; 
it  is  arranged  to  keep  hot,  and  while  not  in  contact 
with  the  cooled  cylinder  is  near  to  the  vapor  inlet  valve 
to  which  it  delivers  its  charges.  The  passages  inside 
which  vaporization  of  the  oil  takes  place  are  detach- 
able. 

The  wrought-iron  ignition  tube  is  placed  below  the 
vaporizer  communicating  directly  with  the  cylinder.  A 
heating  lamp  is  always  required  to  heat  the  vaporizer 
and  maintain  the  ignition  tube  at  proper  red  heat.  The 
method  of  vaporizing  is  as  follows : 

When  the  suction  stroke  of  the  piston  commences  the 
oil  inlet  valve  is  automatically  lifted  from  its  seat  and 
allows  oil  to  be  drawn  into  the  vaporizer  through  it. 
The  vaporizer  blocks  having  been  heated  by  the  inde- 
pendent lamp,  and  likewise  the  chimney  being  hot  also, 
heated  air  is  drawn  in  passing  first  through  the  aper- 
tures in  the  sides  of  the  chimney  communicating  with 
the  passages  of  vaporizer  blocks.  The  air  is  thus  thor- 
oughly heated,  and  next  it  passes  over  the  heated  cast- 
iron  blocks.  To  these  blocks  the  oil  also  flows  from 
the  oil  measurer.  The  heated  air  here  mingles  with 


12  OIL    ENGINES. 

the  oil  and  vaporizes  it,  and  the  two  together  properly 
mixed  are  drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  vapor 
valve.  Simultaneously,  while  the  above  process  of 
vaporization  is  proceeding,  air  is  also  entering  the 
cylinder  through  the  air-inlet  valve  on  the  top  of  the 
cylinder.  Thus,  when  the  suction  stroke  of  the  piston 
is  completed  the  cylinder  is  full  of  heated  oil  vapor 
drawn  in  through  the  vapor  valve,  too  rich  to  explode 
by  itself,  and  also  atmospheric  air  drawn  in  through  the 
air  valve.  Both  elements  are  then  compressed  by  the 
inward  stroke  of  the  piston  completing  the  mixture  of 
the  oil,  vapor  and  air. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  latest  type  of  Crossley  vaporizer 
which  only  requires  heating  when  starting  the  engine. 
The  fuel  is  injected  directly  into  the  vaporizer  through 
the  sprayer  shown  at  C,  Fig.  Jo,  placed  on  the  side  of 
the  vaporizer.  A  small  amount  of  water  with  some 
air  also  enters  this  vaporizer. 

Fig.  6  represents  the  Campbell  vaporizer  in  section. 
The  fuel  oil  is  fed  to  the  vaporizer  by  gravitation  from 
the  fuel  tank  placed  above  the  engine-cylinder,  and 
enters  the  vaporizer  with  the  incoming  air.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  suction  stroke  the  automatic  air-inlet 
valve  is  opened  by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder, 
and  the  oil  which  has  entered  through  the  small  holes 
at  the  inlet  valve  is  drawn  through  the  heated  vaporizer 
into  the  cylinder.  At  the  compression  stroke  the  mix- 
ture of  the  vapor  is  completed,  and  being  forced  into 
the  ignition  tube  is  ignited  in  the  ordinary  way.  The 
ignition  tube  is  heated  by  heating  lamp  fed  by  gravita- 
tion from  the  oil  tank.  The  same  lamp  also  heats  the 


OIL  INLET 


FIG.  6. 


(To  face  />.  12.) 


INTRODUCTORY.  13 

vaporizer  as  well  as  the  tube.  The  governing  is 
effected  by  allowing  the  exhaust-valve  to  remain  open 
when  the  normal  speed  is  exceeded ;  consequently  no 
charge  is  in  that  case  drawn  into  the  cylinder. 

SPRAYERS. — The  oil-spraying  device  of  an  oil  engine 
is  an  important  feature.  In  some  engines  the  fuel  is 
sprayed  alone  into  the  vaporizer.  In  others  with  the 
highest  thermal  efficiency  compressed  air  is  injected 
with  the  fuel.  Various  sprayers  are  shown  at  Fig.  70 
and  7&.  That  at  A  is  positively  operated  and  allows 
air  and  fuel  to  enter  the  vaporizer  together ;  those  at 
B  and  C  are  automatic  and  only  fuel  is  sprayed. 


The  method  of  vaporizing  the  oil  with  the  PRIEST- 
MAN  engine  is  as  follows : 

The  oil  is  stored  under  pressure  in  the  fuel-tank, 
which  pressure  is  created  by  the  separate  air-pump, 
actuated  from  the  cam-shaft.  The  oil  is  thus  forced  to 
the  sprayer,  which  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  6a,  where  it 
meets  a  further  supply  of  air.  The  mixing  of  the  air 
and  oil  takes  place  just  as  both  elements  are  injected 


14  OIL    ENGINES. 

into  the  vaporizing  chamber,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6a.  The 
heating  of  the  vaporizer  is  first  accomplished  with  sep- 
arate lamp ;  afterward,  when  the  engine  is  working,  the 
exhaust  gases  heat  the  vaporizer  by  being  carried 
around  in  the  outside  passage  of  the  vaporizer  cham- 


A.    o. 


FIG.  7. 

"A"— Air  pump  connection,  "o"— Air  passage  to  spray- 
maker.  "O"— Oil  tank  connection.  'V— Oil  passage  to 
spraymaker.  "B" — Supplementary  air  valve. 

ber,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6a.  On  the  outward  or  suction 
stroke  of  the  piston  the  mixture  of  oil  vapor  and  air 
already  formed  and  heated  in  the  vaporizer  is  drawn 
into  the  cylinder  through  the  automatic  inlet-valve 
shown  on  the  left  of  Fig.  6a.  The  compression  stroke 


INTRODUCTORY.  I 5 

then  takes  place  in  the  ordinary  course  of  the  Beau  de 
Rochas  cycle. 

The  governing  is  effected  by  means  of  the  pendu- 
lum or  centrifugal  governor,  shown  at  Fig.  7,  control- 
ling the  amount  of  air  entering  the  vaporizer  as  well 
as  reducing  the  supply  of  oil  simultaneously.  Thus, 
the  explosive  mixture  is  always  composed  of  the  same 
proportions  of  air  and  oil,  but  as  the  supply  of  air 
is  thus  curtailed  the  compression  in  the  cylinder  is  also 
necessarily  reduced  when  the  engine  is  working  at  half 
or  light  load.  The  governor  thus  varies  the  pressure  of 
the  explosion,  reducing  it  when  necessary,  but  not 
causing  at  any  time  the  complete  omission  of  an  ex- 
plosion. 

The  system  of  throttling  the  pressure,  somewhat 
similar  to  a  steam  engine,  produces  very  steady  run- 
ning. 

By  this  system  a  thorough  vaporization  of  the  oil 
takes  place. 

The  ignition  of  the  gases  is  caused  by  electric  spark- 
igniter,  the  spark  being  timed  by  contact-pieces  ac- 
tuated from  the  cam-shaft  and  horizontal  rod  actuating 
the  exhaust-valve,  and  is  of  the  "  jump-spark"  type 
as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

The  oil  engines  now  in  use  and  herein  described  are 
designed  with  their  valve  mechanisms  arranged  to 
work  either  on  the  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle,  or  on  the 
two-cycle  system.  These  two  cycles  are  variously  des- 
ignated, the  former  being  generally  known  as  the  Otto 
cycle,  the  four-cycle,  and  sometimes,  but  erroneously, 
the  two-cycle.  Correctly,  it  should  be  named  the  Beau 


i6 


OIL    ENGINES. 


de  Rochas  cycle  after  its  inventor.  The  other  cycle 
is  generally  known  as  the  "  two-cycle,"  or  sometimes 
as  the  "  single  cycle,"  the  first  designation,  however, 
being  correct.  With  those  engines  working  on  the 
Beau  de  Rochas  cycle,  which  includes  now  many  if 
not  all  the  leading  and  best  known  types  of  engine. 


S3*1' 


THE  BEAU  DE  ROCHAS  CYCLE. 


the  cycle  of  operation  of  the  valves  is  as  follows : 

(a)  Drawing  in  the  air  and  fuel  during    the    first 
outward  stroke  of  the  piston  at  atmospheric  pressure. 

(b)  Compression  of  the  mixture  during  the  first  re- 
turn stroke  of  the  piston. 

(c)  Ignition  of  the  charge  and    expansion  in    the 
cylinder  during  second  outward  stroke  of  the  piston. 

(J)  Exhausting,  the  products  of  combustion  being 
expelled  during  the  second  return  stroke  of  the  piston. 

These  operations  are  clearly  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration,  and  thus,  in  this  system,  the  one 
cycle  is  completed  in  two  revolutions  of  the  crank- 


FIG.  7c. 


FIG.   7b 


OIL.  lNL£.r 

(To  face  p.  16.) 


INTRODUCTORY. 


shaft  or  during  four  strokes  of  the  piston.  The  im- 
pulse at  the  piston  is  obtained  only  once  during  the  two 
revolutions. 

The    second    system,   named   "  two-cycle,"    is   com- 


THE  TWO-CYCLE  PLAN. 

pleted  in  one  revolution,  or  every  two  strokes  of  the 
piston,  and  is  also  clearly  shown  by  the  accompanying 
illustration.  The  operation  of  this  type  is  as  follows : 


l8  OIL    ENGINES. 

(a)  During  the  first  part  of  the  outward  stroke  of 
the  piston — that  is,  until  the  piston  uncovers  the  ex- 
haust-port— expansion  is  taking  place.  When  the  ex- 
haust-port is  opened  the  products  of  combustion  are 
expelled  ;  the  piston  then  moves  a  little  farther  forward 
and  uncovers  the  air-inlet  port  communicating  with 
the  crank  chamber.  The  air  at  slight  pressure  at  once 
rushes  into  the  cylinder,  assisting  the  expulsion  of  the 
burnt  gases,  and  filling  the  cylinder  with  air  already 
compressed  to  five  or  six  pounds  in  the  crank  chamber ; 
this  completes  the  first  stroke  of  this  cycle. 

(&)  The  next  stroke  (being  the  inward  stroke  of  the 
piston)  the  supply  of  incoming  air  and  fuel  is  first 
taken  in;  then  compression  of  the  charge  takes  place. 
Ignition  follows  when  the  piston  reaches  the  back  end. 
These  two  strokes  of  the  piston,  or  one  revolution  of 
the  crank-shaft,  completes  this  cycle  of  operation. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  BOTH  CYCLES. 

The  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle  engine,  having  only  one 
impulse  during  two  revolutions,  requires  the  dimen- 
sion of  the  cylinder  to  be  greater  in  order  to  obtain  a 
given  power  than  would  be  required  with  the  two- 
cycle  system.  Large  and  heavy  fly-wheels  must  also 
be  fitted  to  the  engine  in  order  to  maintain  an  even 
speed  of  the  crank-shaft.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
cycle  has  many  advantages.  The  explosion  is  con- 
trolled more  readily.  The  idle  stroke  of  the  inlet  air 
cools  the  cylinder  and  allows  sufficient  time  to  entirely 
expel  the  products  of  combustion,  and  with  this  sys- 


INTRODUCTORY.  19 

tern  no  outside  air-pump  is  required,  nor  is  there  any 
fear  of  the  compression  being  irregular  by  leakage  in 
the  crank  chamber  or  otherwise. 

With  the  two-cycle  system  air  must  in  some  way 
be  independently  compressed.  If  this  is  accomplished 
in  the  crank  chamber,  then  leakage  may  occur  and  bad 
combustion  follow,  with  accompanying  bad  results  to 
valves  and  piston.  More  cooling  water  is  also  needed 
to  cool  the  cylinder,  and  the  proper  lubrication  of  the 
piston  may  consequently  be  very  difficult  to  accom- 
plish. With  this  system  steadier  running  is  obtained, 
nor  are  the  heavy  fly-wheels  required  as  with  the  engines 
of  the  Beau  de  Rochas  cycle. 

Large  sized  oil  engines  by  all  leading  makers  are 
now  made  of  the  four  (or  Beau  de  Rochas)  cycle. 
Few  if  any  two-cycle  oil  engines  are  now  on  the  market 
where  over  35  B.  H.  P.  is  developed  in  one  cylinder. 
The  increased  volume  of  heated  gases  or  vapor  in  the 
larger  diameter  cylinder  precludes  the  successful  opera- 
tion of  the  two-cycle  type  where  the  explosion  occur- 
ring each  revolution  render  the  cylinder  difficult  of 
proper  cooling.  In  such  engines,  where  the  pressure  of 
compression  takes  place  in  the  crank  chamber,  difficulty 
is  also  experienced  with  the  heating  of  crank  and  other 
bearings.  In  the  smaller  sizes  the  two-cycle  type  has 
many  advantages — notably  greater  frequency  of  im- 
pulse, decreased  weight  per  H.  P.,  elimination  of  ex- 
haust valves  and  valve  motion.  From  tables  of  tests* 
it  will  be  noted  the  economy  of  the  four-cycle  is  higher 
than  that  of  the  two-cycle  type. 

*See  pages  249  to  252. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  OIL 
ENGINES. 

THE  designing  of  an  oil  engine  is  generally  a  differ- 
ent procedure  from  that  of  designing  a  gas  engine.  It 
is  true,  the  oil  engine  is  a  gas  engine  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term,  but  with  the  gas  engine  proper,  the  fuel 
enters  its  cylinder  or  mixing  chamber  in  a  gaseous  state 
ready  for  mixture  with  the  air.  The  power  which  the 
gas  engine  will  develop  can  more  readily  be  calculated 
when  the  clearance  and  pressure  of  compression  before 
the  explosion  is  known  than  with  the  oil  engine. 

The  special  apparatus  which  is  the  most  important 
part  of  the  oil  engine  is  the  vaporizer.  The  different 
types  of  vaporizers  and  the  various  methods  of  vapor- 
izing the  fuel  have  already  been  described  and  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  I. 

In  practically  all  the  oil  engines  herein  described  the 
vaporizing  apparatus  is  self-contained  in  the  engine 
and  part  of  it.  Before  the  pressures  which  will  be  de- 
veloped in  the  cylinder  can  be  accurately  computed, 
experiments  may  be  necessary  to  develop  the  allowable 
maximum  pressure  of  compression  which  can  be  used 
to  obtain  properly  timed  ignition,  complete  combustion 
and  highest  fuel  economy. 

These  remarks  are  particularly  applicable  to  the  type 
of  oil  engine  having  automatic  or  "hot  surface"  igni- 
tion. In  those  engines  where  the  electric  ignitor  or 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  21 

other  mechanically  controlled  ignitor  is  used,  or  in  the 
type  where  the  injection  of  the  fuel  takes  place  after 
compression  is  completed,  the  exact  timing  of  ignition 
is  positively  controlled  and  with  the  engine  in  proper 
working  order  in  other  respects  pre-ignition  cannot 
take  place  which  might  result  with  the  type  having 
automatic  or  "hot  surface"  ignition. 

In  this  chapter  it  is  intended  only  to  describe  as 
fully  as  possible  the  practical  details  of  the  construction 
of  the  oil  engine.  For  a  theoretical  discussion  of  the 
thermodynamics  of  the  internal  combustion  engine, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  those  works  devoted  to  that 
subject.* 

Briefly  referred  to,  the  ideal  heat  engine  converts 
into  work  the  fraction  of  heat 

r,  - 

Where  T1  =  absolute  initial  temperature  or  recep- 
tive temperature. 
T^  =  absolute  final  temperature  or  rejec- 

tive  temperature. 

The  oil  engine,  like  all  other  heat  engines,  converts 
into  work  that  amount  of  heat  being  the  difference  be- 
tween the  initial  temperature  or  heat  received  and  the 
final  temperature  or  heat  equivalent  of  exhaust  and 
other  losses. 
Thus 
Heat  evolved  =  work  f  -f-  heat  and  other  losses. 

*The  Theta  Phi  Diagram  by  H.  A.  Golding ;  the  Steam  En- 
gine by  J.  H.  Cotterill,  and  Heat  Engines  by  Prof.  Ewing. 
tHeat  equivalent  of  work  is  I.  B.  T.  U.  =  778  Foot  pounds. 


22  OIL   ENGINES. 

In  order  therefore  to  obtain  the  greatest  economy,  the 
greatest  range  of  temperature  must  be  allowed  be- 
tween the  initial  and  final  temperatures.  For  this  rea- 
son the  progress  towards  higher  economy  witnessed  in 
recent  years  in  the  oil  and  gas  engine  has  been  largely 
if  not  entirely  effected  by  the  use  of  greater  pressures 
of  compression  before  ignition,  where  the  initial  tem- 
perature which  is  a  measure  of  the  heat  received  by  the 
engine  has  been  increased,  while  the  final  temperature 
has  remained  with  little  or  no  ^  increase,  the  range  be- 
tween being  accordingly  increased. 

HEAT  LOSSES. — In  the  equation  above,  the  heat  or 
other  losses  may  be  classified  as  follows:  i.  Friction  in 
the  mechanical  movements  of  the  engine  itself. 
2.  Losses  of  heat  through  the  cylinder  and  other  water 
jackets.  3.  Radiation.  4.  Loss  through  exhaust  gases. 
5.  Leakage  and  other  losses. 

INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES  are  of  substantial 
design  in  order  to  withstand  the  continual  shock  and 
vibrations  incident  thereto,  and  should  pre-eminently  be 
as  accessible  as  possible  in  the  working  parts,  which 
may  require  adjustment  from  time  to  time  when  in  ac- 
tual service.  The  starting  gear  and  other  parts  to  be 
handled  by  the  attendant  when  starting  and  running 
should  be  placed  in  close  proximity  to  each  other. 

Simplicity  in  construction  is,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
the  essential  feature  of  an  oil  engine.  Above  all  other 
prime  movers,  the  oil  engine  is  a  machine  intended  for 
use  in  any  part  of  the  world  where  its  fuel  is  obtain- 
able, and  where,  perhaps,  no  mechanic  is  available. 


FIG.  8. 


(To  face  p.  22.) 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  23 

Accordingly,  all  the  valves  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  be  easily  removed  for  examination  and  repairs.  The 
spraying  and  igniting  device,  as  well  as  the  vaporizer, 
should  be  so  designed  as  to  facilitate  removal  and  re- 
pairs. In  short,  an  oil  engine,  to  be  successful  mechan- 
ically and  commercially,  should  be  so  constructed  that 
it  can  be  successfully  worked,  cleaned  and  adjusted  by 
entirely  unskilled  attendants. 

THE  INDICATED  HORSE-POWER  (I.  H.  P.)  or  total 
power  developed  by  the  engine  is  arrived  at  by  the 
formula 


33,000 

Where  P  =  mean   effective   pressure   in   Ibs.   per 

sq.  in. 

L  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 
A  =  effective  area  of  piston  in  sq.  in. 
N  =  number  of  explosions  per  minute. 
THE  BRAKE  OR  ACTUAL  HORSE-POWER  (B.  H.  P.) 
developed  by  the  engine  is  the  I.  H.  P.  less  the  friction 
in  the  engine  itself  and  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
power  absorbed.    The  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  en- 
gine (see  page  86)  is  found  by  the  formula 

Mech.  Em.  (E)  =  5. 


In  determining  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  of  an 
engine  to  furnish  a  required  actual  or  Brake  H.  P., 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  must  allow  for  the  friction 
losses,  the  mechanical  efficiency  being  usually  80%  to 


24  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  (M.  E.  P.)  may  be  ar- 
rived at  by  the  following  formulae  in  existing  engines  : 

B.  H.  P.  X  306.000 
Mean  effective  pressure  =  ---  £'v  FX  N  — 


E=  Mechanical  efficiency,  usually  about  0.80. 
F=  Volume  piston  displacement  in  cubic  inches. 
N  '=  Number  of  explosions  per  minute. 

For  multicylinder  engines,  the  M.  E.  P.  can  be  de- 
termined by  considering  the  B.  H.  P.  for  one  cylinder 
only. 

The  accompanying  diagrams,  Fig.  8b,  are  taken  from 
different  makes  of  oil  engines  which  have  various  pres- 
sures of  compression.  It  will  be  seen  that  while  there 
is  a  certain  comparison  between  the  compression  pres- 
sure and  the  maximum  and  mean  effective  of  the  oil 
engine  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  gas  engine  do  not 
altogether  apply  to  the  oil  engine. 

The  formulae  given  hereafter  are  those  in  many  in- 
stances used  for  the  designing  of  gas  engines.  The 
dimensions  of  the  reciprocating  parts  are  frequently, 
however,  increased  somewhat  for  the  oil  engine,  es- 
pecially with  the  type  having  hot  surface  or  automatic 
methods  of  ignition. 

CYLINDERS.  —  Cylinders  of  different  types  are  shown 
at  Figs.  8,  8a,  and  9.  Where  the  cylinder  is  made  in 
two  parts  the  inner  liner  is  held  at  the  back  end  only, 
the  front  joint  being  made  with  rubber  rings.  This 
leaves  the  inner  sleeve  free  to  expand  lengthwise  and 


FIG.  8b. 


(To  face  p.  24.) 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  25 

also  allows  the  strain  of  the  explosion  to  be  transmitted 
only  through  the  outer  cylinder.  Except  for  the  larger- 
sized  engines  of  over  40  H.  P.,  the  cylinder  made  in 
one  piece  is  very  satisfactory.  The  circulating  water 
space  around  the  cylinder  is  made  as  is  shown  in 
Figs.  8  and  9,  being  f "  to  iV'  deep,  the  water  inlet 
and  outer  pipes  being  so  arranged  as  to  allow  free  and 
efficient  circulation  of  the  cooling  water  around  the 
cylinder.  By  some  manufacturers  this  space  for  water 
is  arranged  to  cool  only  that  part  of  the  cylinder  cover- 
ing the  travel  of  the  piston-rings,  instead  of  the  whole 
cylinder,  as  here  shown.  Other  cylinders  are  cast  in 
one  piece  with  the  frame  or  bed-plate  having  internal 
'sleeve.  This  arrangement  has,  among  other  advan- 
tages, that  of  cheapness,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage 
that  if  the  cylinder  for  any  reason  should  require  re- 
newing the  whole  frame  must  be  renewed  with  it. 

The  cylinder  cover  is  made  in  some  engines  with  the 
valves,  air-inlet  valve  housing  or  guide  inserted  into  it, 
and  with  space  also  in  the  larger-sized  engines  ar- 
ranged for  cooling  water-jacket.  Other  engines  have 
the  igniter  placed  in  the  cover,  while  cylinders  of  the 
type  shown  in  Fig.  8  require  no  cover,  the  vaporizer 
flange  closing  the  contracted  hole  in  the  end  of  the 
cylinder. 

CYLINDER  CLEARANCE. — The  percentage  of  clear- 
ance or  clearance  volume  in  the  cylinder  and  combus- 
tion space  may  be  arrived  at  by  the  following : 


26  OIL    ENGINES. 

Where  Vc  =  clearance  volume  in  cubic  inches. 

Pe  =  compression  pressure  in  atmospheres 
_  absolute  pressure 

14.7 

d=  diameter  cylinder  in  inches. 
s  =  length  of  stroke  in  inches. 
The  clearance  allowed  with  the  oil  engine  will  de- 
pend upon  the  type  of  vaporizer  and  the  method  of 
vaporizing  adopted,  on  the  timing  of  the  injection  of 
fuel,  the  pressure  of  compression  and  the  clearance 
may  finally  have  to  be  modified  to  procure  the  best  re- 
sults as  shown  by  the  indicator  card. 

STROKE. — The  ratio  of  length  of  stroke  to  diameter 
of  cylinder  varies  with  different  types  of  engines.  The 
maximum    speed   of   piston    allowable    is    considered 
900  ft.  per  min.     In  small  high  speed  engines  the 
length  of  stroke 

-r: r r= , — =   I.    tO    I.*. 

diameter  of  cylinder 

For  medium  sized  engines  this  ratio  is  1.3  to  1.6, 
while  in  larger  engines  the  ratio  is  sometimes  as  large 
as  i. 8  or  2. 

THE  CRANK-SHAFT  of  an  oil  engine  must  be  made  of 
sufficient  strength  not  only  to  withstand  the  sudden 
pressure  due  to  ordinary  explosion,  but  also  to  with- 
stand the  strain  consequent  upon  the  greater  explosive 
pressure  which  may  possibly  be  caused  by  previous 
missed  explosions.  The  crank-shaft  is  proportioned  in 
relation  to  the  area  of  the  cylinder  and  the  maximum 
pressure  of  explosion  and  the  length  of  stroke.  .Oil-en- 
gine crank-shafts  are  usually  made  of  the  "slab  type," 
as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  It  has  been  said  of  explosive  engines 
that  their  comparative  efficiency  may  be  to  an  extent 


ON   DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  2/ 

gauged  by  the  strength  of  the  crank-shaft,  because 
if  the  crank-shaft  is  of  too  small  dimensions,  it  will 
spring  with  each  explosion,  causing  the  fly-wheels  to 
run  out  of  truth  and  also  uneven  wear  of  the  bearings. 
Table  I.  gives  a  list  of  dimensions  of  crank-shafts 
of  both  oil  and  gas  engines  which  are  made  by  some 
leading  manufacturers,  together  with  the  dimensions 
of  the  cylinder  and  stroke. 

Different    formulae    for   the    dimensions    of    crank- 


FIG.  io. 


shafts  are  given  by  various  writers  on  this  subject.* 
The  following,  for  example  (which  is  recommended 
by  the  writer),  is  given  by  Mr.  William  Norris. 


sxt 


120 

S  =  load  on  piston   (area  of  cylinder  in  inches  X 

maximum  pressure  of  explosion. 
/  —  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 
D  =  diameter  of  crank-shaft  in  inches. 

*An  alternative  formula  is  D  =  0.137-^5  X  /. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


This  formula,  however,  neglects  the  bending  action 
due  to  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  crank-pin  from  the 
centre  of  the  bearings.  The  diameter  should  be 
thus  slightly  increased.  Mr.  Norris  also  gives  a 
lengthy  description,  with  example,  of  ascertaining  all 
the  dimensions  of  the  crank-shaft  by  means  of  the 
graphic  method. 

TABLE  I.— SIZES  OF  CRANK-SHAFTS. 


Cylinder. 

A. 

B. 

c. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

G. 

Diam. 

Stroke. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

ft.    in. 

in. 

5 

8 

If 

I| 

4 

4 

2 

6* 

*i 

si 

9 

*i 

3 

4i 

2* 

«f 

8| 

si 

7i 

u 

2* 

Si 

Si 

2f 

3 

9^ 

4i 

»i 

15 

Si 

4 

7i 

•I 

Si 

«i 

5 

8* 

18 

si 

4 

9 

3 

Si 

2 

5 

9i 

18 

si 

4i 

9 

si 

si 

3 

Si 

12 

18 

4i 

4t 

9 

si.- 

4i 

Si 

6i 

Ili 

21 

4i 

4l 

I0i 

4 

si 

Si 

6i 

14 

21 

5i 

5t 

!0i 

4i 

4i 

5 

8| 

17 

24 

7 

8 

12 

5t 

7i 

ioi 

10 

19 

3° 

7i 

8 

T3 

6 

9 

2 

ii 

7 

12 

*& 

2f 

6 

*A 

4 

8f 

3l 

9 

14 

*H 

3 

7 

2i 

3t 

4 

ii 

15 

3TV 

4 

71 

2TV 

4i 

»i 

4f 

'Si 

16 

sH 

4f 

8 

3A 

4| 

I3f 

5l 

THE  BALANCING  of  crank-shafts  and  reciprocating 
parts  is  another  important  feature  of  an  oil  engine. 
With  a  single-cylinder  explosive  engine  to  perfectly 
accomplish  the  balancing  is  impracticable.  Most  manu- 
facturers, therefore,  only  balance  their  engines  as  far 


FIG.  n. 


(To  face  p.  28.) 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  29 

as  the  horizontal  movement  is  concerned.  The  follow- 
ing formulae  is  considered  correct,  and  has  proved 
satisfactory  for  the  horizontal  type  of  engines : 


tc;  =:  weight  in  Ibs.  of  balance  weight. 

C  =  crank-pin  and  rotating  part  of  connecting-rod 
in  Ibs. 

R  —  radius  of  crank  circle  in  inches. 

G  —  two-thirds  weight  of  all  remaining  reciprocat- 
ing parts  in  Ibs. 

.S  —  weight  of  crank-arms  in  Ibs. 

r  =  distance  of  centre  of  gravity  of  crank-arms 
from  centre  of  rotation. 

a  =  distance  of  centre  of  gravity  of  counterweight 
from  centre  of  rotation. 

Some  designers,  however,  the  writer  has  observed, 
make  the  crank  balance  weights  as  large  as  space  be- 
tween bearings  and  engine  bed  will  allow — that  is, 
when  the  weights  are  fastened  to  the  crank-arms,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  n,  thus  overbalancing  the  crank  and 
reciprocating  parts.  While  this  would  appear  bad 
practice,  such  engines  have  been  known  to  run  without 
the  slightest  vibration.  For  the  vertical  type  of  engines 
the  whole  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts,  instead  of 
two-thirds  weight,  has  been  satisfactorily  taken. 

Reciprocating  parts  are  sometimes  balanced  by  re- 
cess in  fly-wheel  rim  or  metal  added  to  the  fly-wheel 
rim  or  hub.  The  only  correct  method  of  balancing  is 
by  counterweights.  See  Fig.  1 1 . 


30  OIL    ENGINES. 

Various  methods  of  attaching  the  counterweights  to 
the  crank-shaft  are  shown  at  Fig.  n,  from  which  it 
will  be  noted  that -the  counterweights  are  attached  by 
studs  placed  in  the  cheek  of  the  crank  and  either  pass 
completely  through  the  counterweight  or  the  counter- 
weight is  recessed,  the  nuts  of  the  studs  being  tightened 
in  the  recess  as  shown.  Again  one  bolt  only  is  some- 
times used,  the  cheek  of  the  crank-shaft  then  being  re- 
cessed, a  lip  being  machined  on  the  counterweight  to 
fit  the  recess  in  the  cheek  of  the  crank-shaft.  The 
fourth  method  of  attaching  the  counterweights  is 
shown,  in  which  a  bolt  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
center  line  of  the  countershaft,  this  bolt  passing 
through  a  hole  drilled  in  the  counterweights  and  cheek 
of  the  crank-shaft. 

The  two  last  named  methods  are  chiefly  used  in  the 
larger  sized  engines.  The  strength  of  the  bolts  neces- 
sary to  hold-  the  counterweights  in  place  can  be  found 
by  the  following  formula : 


13,020 
Where  w  =  weight  of  one  counterweight  in  Ibs. 

r  =  distance  from  center  line  of  shaft  to 
center  of  gravity  of  counterweight  in 
inches. 

n  =  revolutions  per  minute. 
d=  diameter  of  each  bolt  in  inches. 

The  above  is  for  two  bolts  for  each  weight.  If  one  bolt 
only  is  used  it  must  equal  in  tensile  strength  the  two 
bolts. 


FIG.   12. 


(To  face  p.  30.) 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  3! 

CONNECTING-RODS  are  made  of  various  designs  in 
cross-section,  but  that  chiefly  used  is  made  of  soft  steel 
and  circular,  with  marine  type  brasses  at  crank-pin  end 
and  similar  bearings  at  the  piston  or  small  end.  By 
some  makers  the  latter  bearing  is  made  with  adjust- 
able wedge  and  screw,  the  end  of  the  connecting-rod 
then  being  slotted  out,  with  brass  bushes  fitted  in  it. 

Each  type  of  connecting-rod  is  shown  at  Fig.  12. 
That  illustrated  at  "A"  is  a  design  more  suitable  for 
the  larger  size  engines,  in  which  space  inside  the  pis- 
ton is  available  for  adjustment  of  the  bolts,  as  shown. 
The  connecting-rod  marked  "B"  is  of  the  rectangular 
type,  and  is  frequently  left  rough,  the  ends  only  being 
machined. 


FIG.  13 


For  small  engines  a  good  and  cheap  form  of  con- 
necting-rod is  made  of  phosphor-bronze  metal,  as 
shown  in  Fig  13,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
piston-end  bearing  is  made  in  one  piece  with  the  rod, 
and  being  slotted  is  thus  made  adjustable.  The  metal 
is  left  rough  other  than  at  the  bearings. 

CONNECTING-ROD  BOLTS.— The  connecting-rod  bolts 


32  OIL   ENGINES. 

should  be  made  of  the  best  wrought  iron.  The  cross- 
section  of  connecting-rod  bolts  at  bottom  of  threads 
must  be  such  that  on  the  beginning  of  the  suction 
stroke  the  stress  does  not  exceed  4,000  to  6,000  Ibs. 
per  square  inch.  The  total  force  is  made  up  of  the 
inertia  force  and  the  suction  force  and  is  arrived  at  as 
follows : 

Let  F=  total  inertia  force. 

d—  diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches. 
W=  total  weight  of  piston,   piston  pin,  one- 
half  the  weight  of  connecting-rod  and 
the  weight  of  any  cooling  water  in  the 
piston. 

r  =  radius  of  crank  in  feet. 
/=  length  of  connecting-rod  in  feet. 

Then  F=  .00034  W(R.  P.  M.)v(i  +  0, 

and  the  suction  force  —  about  2  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
Therefore  the  total  suction  force 

A  =  2  x  .785^'. 
The  area  of  all  the  connecting-rod  bolts  at  the 

root  of  the  threads  should  not  be  less  than  — — — . 

6,000 

The  connecting-rod  of  a  single-acting  engine  has, 
chiefly,  compression  stresses  to  withstand ;  both  the 
outer  end  bearings  have  little  or  no  strain  on  them, 
except  that  due  to  momentum  of  the  reciprocating 
parts.  The  connecting-rod  should  be  from  two  to 
three  strokes  in  length.  In  computing  its  strength, 
the  connecting-rod  can  be  taken  as  a  strut  loaded 
at  either  end.  The  mean  diameter  when  made  of  mild 


L       BHH     C 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  140. 


FIG.  15. 


(To  face  p.  32.) 


ON   DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  33 

steel  is  arrived  at  by  the  following  formulae,  as  given 
by  authorities  on  steam-engine  design : 


x  =  0.035  ^DlVm. 

x  =  mean  diameter  of  connecting-rod  (half  sum  of 
diameter  of  both  ends). 

D  =  diameter  of  cylinder  in  inches. 

/  =  distance  in  inches  between  centre  of  connecting- 
rod.  ' 

m  =  maximum  explosive  pressure  in  Ibs.  per  square 
inch. 

This  formula,  however,  is  excessive  for  medium 
and  slow  speed  engines,  and  in  such  instances  the 
writer  has  used  the  following  formulae  with  satisfac- 
tory results — namely : 


0.028  YD  I  Vm. 

THE  PISTON  in  single-acting  engines  is  generally  of 
the  trunk  pattern,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14,  with  internal 
gudgeon-pin  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  piston,  secured 
at  either  end  to  the  piston  by  set-screws.  The  steam- 
engine  cross-head  and  slide-bars  are  dispensed  with, 
the  power  being  transmitted  directly  from  the  gudgeon- 
pin  of  the  piston  to  the  crank. 

The  piston  is  made  of  hard  close-grained  iron,  and 
should  not  be  less  than  5-16"  in  thickness  for  small 
engines  and  slightly  heavier  for  the  larger  sizes.  In 


34  OIL    ENGINES. 

each  case  the  metal  is  thicker  at  the  back  than  at 
the  front  end.  The  piston  is  usually  1.6  diameters  in 
length.  Three  cast-iron  piston-rings,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
15,  are  fitted  to  the  smaller  engines,  four  and  five  rings 
being  required  to  keep  the  piston  tight  in  the  larger 
sizes.  A  single  ring  is  sometimes  added,  placed  in 
front  of  the  gudgeon-pin,  but  its  use  is  not  recom- 
mended. The  pressure  on  the  piston,  caused  by  the 
explosive  pressure  and  due  to  the  angularity  of  the 
connecting-rod,  should  not  be  greater  than  25  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  of  rubbing  surface. 

The  piston  in  which  separate  distance-pieces  be- 
tween each  ring  and  having  separate  plate  bolted  to 
the  back  of  the  piston  is  shown  at  Fig.  140. 

In  the  larger  engines  (those  having  a  cylinder 
diameter  of  more  than  24  inches),  a  water- jacketed 
chamber  is  made  at  the  back  end  of  the  piston  which 
is  supplied  with  a  continuous  flow  of  cooling  wa'er. 
This  piston  is  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  15  and  Fig.  95. 
The  cooling  water  is  conducted  to  and  fro  by  separate 
pipes  attached  to  the  piston,  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
Fig.  95,  and  communicate  either  through  stuffing  boxes 
or  other  suitable  means  to  allow  proper  supply  of  wa- 
ter to  the  piston.  Water- jacketing  of  the  piston  is 
necessary  in  the  larger  sizes  because  of  the  increased 
volume  of  burning  gases  which  would  become  unduly 
heated,  allowing  increased  expansion  of  the  piston  and 
rendering  it  difficult  of  lubrication. 

PISTON  SPEED. — The  revolutions  per  minute  at 
which  the  engine  is  designed  to  run  is  governed  almost 
entirely  by  the  piston  speed.  High  speed  engines  are 
designed  with  a  comparatively  short  stroke — slow  speed 


I 


OX    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  35 

engines  having  a  stroke  much  longer  in  comparison 
with  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder.  The  maximum  al- 
lowable cpeed  of  the  piston  is  considered  as  900  feet 
per  minute.  As  in  four-cycle  engines  the  operation  of 
the  valves  takes  place  only  every  other  revolution,  this 
type  of  engine  is  made  with  a  speed  frequently  as 
high  as  350  to  400  R.  P.  M. 

Inertia  force  per  square  inch  of  piston  at  end  of 
compression  stroke  must'  not  exceed  compression 
pressure,  or  the  explosion  will  reverse  the  direction  of 
pressures  and  cause  a  "knock." 

The  inertia  force  per  square  inch  of  piston  — 
will  be  as  follows: 


F_.  00034  W(R.  P.M.)3   /        r\ 

a-         a  y  +  ir 


a  =  area  of  piston  in  sq.  in. 

The  value  of—  must  be  such  as  to  be  less  than  the 
a 

compression  pressure. 

FLY-WHEELS.  —  The  oil  engine  is  equipped  with 
heavier  fly-wheels  than  is  necessary  with  a  steam  en- 
gine. The  weight  of  the  oil  engine  fly-wheel  varies  in- 
versely both  with  the  number  of  impulses  given  per 
revolution  at  the  crank-pin  and  the  degree  of  unsteadi- 
ness from  the  uniform  speed  of  rotation  allowed.  The 
total  revolutions  per  minute  are  controlled  by  the 
governor,  but  the  cyclic  variation  and  the  degree  of  un- 
steadiness from  uniform  speed  of  rotation  during  one 
cycle  depend  on  the  fly-wheel.  For  a  given  degree  of 
unsteadiness  of  a  single  cylinder,  single  acting  four- 
cycle engine,  the  heaviest  fly-wheel  will  be  required. 


36  OIL    ENGINES. 

Where  the  number  of  cylinders  is  increased,  or  where 
the  number  of  impulses  per  minute  are  increased,  the 
weight  of  the  fly-wheel  to  give  the  same  degree  of  un- 
steadiness will,  of  course,  be  less  than  with  a  single 
cylinder  engine  previously  referred  to. 

By  the  degree  of  unsteadiness  is  meant  the  change 
in  speed  from  the  uniform  speed  of  rotation  through- 
out the  cycle. 

Let  T=  Degree  of  unsteadiness. 

„      V  max  —  V  min 

Then  1  = ^7 . 

Kave 

V  max  =  maximum  velocity  of  shaft  during  cycle. 
V  min  =  minimum  velocity  of  shaft  during  cycle. 
F  ave  =  average  velocity  of  shaft  during  cycle. 

The  value  of  T  recommended  by  Giildner*  is: 

.05  to    .0334 ^V  to  -jV   for   pumps  and  wood 

factories. 

.0285  to      .025 -fa  to  TV   for  factories. 

.025 -fa   for   looms   and    paper 

mills. 

.020 -gig-   for  grinding  mills. 

.0166  to      .001. . .  .-gij-  to  Y^-JJ-   for  spinning  factories. 
.00067 y-^   for  direct-current  gen- 
erator. 

.00033 TOT  f°r  alternating-current 

generators. 

By  cyclic  variation  is  meant  the  greatest  angle  that 

the  rotating  crank-pin  varies  from  the  position  it  would 

occupy  were  its  motion  perfectly  uniform.     Generally 

these  two  conditions  are  not  related.    Consideration  of 

*Verbrennungs  motoren  H.  Giildner.     Page  345. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  37 

cyclic  variation  is  usually  only  necessitated  when  the 
engine  is  required  to  operate  alternators  in  parallel  or 
where  a  similar  uniform  motion  is  necessary. 

The  diameter  of  the  fly-wheel  is  governed  by  the 
peripheral  speed  which  should  not  exceed  6,000  ft.  per 
min.  for  cast  iron.  In  computing  the  weight  of  the 
fly-wheel,  it  is  customary  to  neglect  the  weight  of  the 
hub  and  arms,  and  to  calculate  only  on  the  weight  of 
the  rim  as  follows  : 

W  —  weight  of  rim  only  in  tons  (2,000  Ibs.). 

D  =  dia.  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  rim  in  feet. 

JV  —  revolutions  per  minute. 

P=  actual  or  brake  H.  P. 

C  =  constant. 

p 

Thpn  W—  C 

—  u  £)*TN3' 

C*=  for  single-acting  4-cycle  engine  with   impulse 
each  720°,  520.000. 

=  for  engines  with  impulse  each  360°,  250.000. 

=  for  engines  with  impulse  each  240°,  166.000. 

=  for  engines  with  impulse  each  180°,  83.000. 

Different  types  of  fly-wheels  are  shown  at  Fig.  16. 
The  smaller  engines  for  industrial  purposes  are 
equipped  with  one  and  sometimes  two  fly-wheels  made 
in  one  piece.  Larger  engines  of  say  50  H.  P.  and  up- 
wards are  usually  equipped  with  one  large  fly-wheel 
made  in  two  parts  as  shown  at  Fig.  i6a.  The  hub  split 
with  medium  sized  wheels  is  considered  advantageous, 
as  it  allows  more  accurate  fitting  to  the  shaft  and  it  be- 
comes easier  to  keep  the  wheel  running  in  truth. 

The  cams  are  made  of  cast  iron  or  steel  and  are 
usually  designed  as  shown  in  Fig.  17.  Cast  iron  is  ad- 


38  OIL  ENGINES. 

vantageously  chilled  to  withstand  the  wear  of  the 
rollers. 

The  function  of  a  cam  is  to  transfer  rotary  mo- 
tion of  the  crank-shaft  and  cam-shaft  to  the  recip- 
rocating action  required  for  lifting  the  poppet  valves. 
The  rapid  opening  and  closing  of  the  valves  necessary 
in  a  four-cycle  engine  is  more  easily  arrived  at  with  a 
cam  motion  than  otherwise.  The  valve  is  closed  by  a 
spring,  the  function  of  opening  the  valve  being  per- 
formed by  the  cam  only.  Generally  valve  mechan- 
isms in  which  cams  and  poppet  valves  are  used  are 
noisy  in  operation,  especially  in  higher  speed  engines. 

The  rate  of  opening  and  closing  of  the  valve  can  be 
ascertained  by  plotting  a  curve  corresponding  to  ordi- 
nates  equivalent  to  the  various  distances  from  the  face 
of  the  cam  to  its  centre  taken  at  specified  intervals. 
The  required  width  of  the  face  of  the  cam  in  contact 
with  the  rollers  is  ascertained  by  computing  the  work 
to  be  done  due  to  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  at  time 
of  valve  opening,  together  with  the  area  of  the  valve. 
Accordingly,  where  the  air  valve  is  operated  the  cam 
controlling  its  movement  is  of  less  width,  seeing  that 
only  atmospheric  pressure  obtains  when  it  is  operated 
as  compared  with  the  exhaust  valve  cam,  which  has  to 
open  that  valve  against  a  pressure  in  some  cases  as  high 
as  40  Ibs.,  necessarily  involving  considerable  work. 

VALVES  AND  VALVE-BOXES. — The  dimensions  of  the 
air-inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  governed  by  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cylinder  and  the  piston  speed.  The  style 
of  the  valve-box  recommended  is  that  made  separate 
and  bolted  to  the  cylinder.  The  valve-box  can  then 


ON     DESIGNING    OIL     ENGINES.  39 


be  entirely  renewed  if  necessary  and  at  small  expense. 
This  type  of  valve-box  is  shown  at  Fig.  18,  both  valves 
being  operated  from  the  cam-shaft.  The  springs  re- 
quired to  close  the  valves  are  shown  at  Figs.  18  and  19. 
The  latter  arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  having 
the  springs  placed  away  from  the  heated  valve  cham- 
bers. Other  designs  of  valve  chambers  have  the  valves 
placed  horizontally  in  the  cylinder  back-head.  A  com- 
pact design  of  valves  is  shown  at  Fig.  20,  in  which  the 
exhaust  valve  is  operated  only,  the  air  valve  being  au- 
tomatic. In  each  case  the  valves  should  be  brought 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  cylinder  walls,  the  clearance 
space  in  the  ports,  etc.,  being  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

With  engines  of  larger  size  the  air  and  exhaust 
valve  box  is  surrounded  by  a  water  jacket,  which 
maintains  its  proper  temperature  and  prevents  the  seats 
of  the  valves  being  distorted  by  undue  expan- 
sion, which  might  otherwise  occur.  It  will  be  noted 
in  the  illustration  that  the  inlet  and  outlet  water  con- 
nections to  the  valve-box  are  made  by  separate  pipes. 

Where  the  air-inlet  valve  is  made  automatic,  it  is 
opened  by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  during 
the  suction  period,  and  closed  by  a  delicate  spring,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  20.  The  air  and  exhaust  valves  and 
port  openings  are  usually  made  of  such  an  area  that 
the  velocity  of  the  air  inlet  as  it  enters  the  cylinder  is 
100  feet  per  second — the  velocity  of  the  exhaust  gases 
through  the  exhaust  or  outlet  being  about  80  feet  per 
second,  presuming  the  exhaust  products  to  be  expelled 
at  atmospheric  pressure.  The  air-inlet  valve,  if  auto- 
matic, should  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  ingress  of  air 


4O  OIL   ENGINES. 

without  choking.  In  calculating  the  area  of  valve 
ports  or  passages,  allowance  must  be  made  for  valve 
guide  or  other  obstruction  in  the  passages.  The  ve- 
locity of  the  air  is  found  in  the  following  formulae  : 


V=  velocity  of  air  in  ft.  per  second. 
P—  piston  speed  in  ft.  per  second. 
a  =  area  of  piston  in  inches. 
at=  area  of  valve  opening  in  inches. 

MAIN  BEARING.  —  Various  designs  of  bearings  are 
shown  at  Fig.  i8a.  The  ring  oiling  type  of  bearing, 
while  somewhat  more  expensive  to  manufacture  than 
the  other  types  shown,  is  recommended.  The  maximum 
pressure  on  the  bearing  should  not  exceed  400  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in.  of  projected  area. 

THE  CRANK-PIN.  —  To  determine  the  dimension  of 
the  crank-pin  would  properly  lead  to  a  lengthy  discus- 
sion as  to  all  the  strains  involved,  and  the  reader  for  a 
complete  discussion  on  this  subject  is  referred  to  works 
where  space  is  allowed  for  such.* 

In  different  types.  of  engines  the  dimension  of  the 
pin  varies.  A  crank-pin  short  in  length  and  compara- 
tively large  in  diameter  is  recommended.  The  diameter 
of  the  pin  being  not  less  than  1.2  times  the  diameter 
of  the  shaft.  (See  table  I.) 

The  average  pressure  on  the  crank-pin  allowable 
should  not  exceed  500  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  of  projected  area. 

*Unwin  Machine  Design. 


FIG.  i8a. 


(To  face  p.  40.) 


ON   DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  41 

THE  EXHAUST  BENDS  close  to  valve-box  should 
when  possible  be  of  not  less  than  5"  radius  for  the 
smaller  engines,  which  dimension  should  be  increased 
for  larger-sized  engines. 

THE  VALVES  are  made  of  forged  steel,  either  in  one 
piece  or  with  cast-iron  valve  and  wrought-iron  or  steel 
stem  fitted  into  it,  and  are  shown  in  Fig.  21.  Some 
manufacturers  prefer  the  latter  on  account  of  cheap- 
ness, and  also  because  it  is  claimed  the  cast-iron  valves 
will  withstand  heat  better  than  the  forged  valve. 


from 


FIG.  20. 


PISTON-PIN.— For  small  engines,  the  length  of  the 
piston-pin  is  almost  invariably  one-half  the  diame- 
ter of  the  cylinder  and  the  diameter  of  the  pin  0.15  to 
0.25  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder.  This  leads  to  pres- 
sures of  i, 800  to  2,200  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  of  projected 


42  OIL    ENGINES. 

Medium  power  and  large  engines  have  piston-pins 
of  diameter 

minimum  dp  =  o. 22d\vhered=  diameter  of  cylinder, 
maximum  dp  =  0.45^. 

Lucke  recommends  a  pin  of  diameter* 
and  of  length  ^I^. 

WATER  COOLED   VALVt 


FlG.    21. 

THE  ENGINE  FRAME. — Different  designs  of  engine 
frames  are  shown  in  the  illustrations  of  sectional  views 

*Gas  Engine  Design  by  C.  E.  Lucke,  Ph.D. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  43 

of  various  engines  (see  Figs.  76,  98,  no).  The  frame 
should  be  proportioned  not  only  to  prevent  vibration 
and  to  withstand  the  strains  consequent  on  the  impulse 
in  the  cylinder,  but  should  also  be  ribbed  and  of  ample 
sectional  strength  to  overcome  the  vibration  known  as 
"panting." 

VALVE  MECHANISMS. — With  the  Beau  de  Rochas 
or  four-cycle  engine  the  valves  are  only  operated  dur- 
ing alternate  revolutions  of  the  crank-shaft.  This 
necessitates  an  arrangement  of  some  kind  of  two-to-one 
gear.  Worm-gear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  is  considered 


FIG.  22. 

to  be  well  adapted  for  this  work.  The  power  necessary 
to  operate  the  valves  is,  in  this  case,  transmitted  from 
the  crank-shaft  by  the  worm  or  skew  gearing  through 
the  cam-shaft,  with  separate  cams  opening  the  air  and 
exhaust  valves  by  the  operating  levers,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  23.  Where  spur-gearing  (Fig.  230)  is  .used  the 
cam-shaft  is  mounted  in  bearings  parallel  to  the  crank- 
shaft, the  cams  then  acting  on  the  horizontal  rod 
working  in  compression,  which  opens  the  valves. 

Various  other  arrangements  for  reducing  the  motion 
are  also  used,  the  work  accomplished  being  in  each 


44 


OIL    ENGINES. 


case  the  same  as  with  the  worm  or  spur  gear-,  shaft  and 
levers — namely,  the  opening  of  the  valves  during  al- 
ternate revolutions  of  the  crank-shaft. 


LINE  VALVE  BOX 

FIG.  23. 


In  the  two-cycle  engine  this  valve  or  valves  are 
operated  each  revolution  of  the  crank-shaft  by  eccen- 
tric or  cams  actuated  directly  from  the  crank-shaft. 


FIG.  230. 

GOVERNING  DEVICES. — The  governing  devices  for 
controlling  the  speed  of  oil  engines  are  of  two  kinds : 
first,  that  designed  to  develop  centrifugal  force,  which 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  45 

is  balanced  either  by  suitable  controlling  spring  or  dead 
weight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24,  and,  secondly,  the  inertia 
or  pendulum  type  of  governor. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  also  show  the  meth- 
od of  by-passing  the  oil  where  the  air  supply 
is  constant  at  all  loads.  The  Rites  governor,  a  very 
simple  and  efficient  device  of  the  fly-wheel  type  of 
governor,  is  illustrated  and  described  in  Chapter  X., 
the  method  of  governing,  in  which  the  air  supply  and 
oil  supply  is  controlled,  is  shown  at  Fig.  7,  illus- 
trating the  Priestman  governor.  In  those  engines 
where  the  regulation  is  controlled  by  preventing  the 
suction  into  the  cylinder,  caused  by  holding  the  ex- 
haust valve  open,  the  inertia  type  of  governor  is  some- 
times used,  where  the  inertia  of  a  weight  attached  to  a 
reciprocating  part  of  the  valve  motion  is  arranged, 
having  its  movement  controlled  by  an  adjustable  spring. 
When  the  normal  speed  is  exceeded  the  inertia  of  the 
weight  overcomes  the  pressure  of  the  spring  and  thus 
holds  open  the  exhaust  valve  till  the  normal  speed  is 
regained. 

The  governors  regulate  the  speed  of  the  engine  by 
the  following  different  methods : 

(a)  By  acting  through  suitable  levers  or  other 
mechanism  on  the  valves  controlling  the  fuel  supply 
to  the  cylinder,  either  by  means  of  a  by-pass  valve 
placed  in  the  oil-supply  pipe  to  vaporizer,  thus  allow- 
ing part  of  the  charge  of  oil  to  return  to  the  tank  in- 
stead of  entering  the  vaporizing  chamber  or  by  regu- 
lating the  amount  of  oil  as  well  as  the  air  supply. 

(&)  Acting  directly  on  the  oil-supply  pump,  length- 


46 


OIL    ENGINES. 


ening    or  shortening  the  stroke  of    the  pump,  as    re- 
quired. 

(c)  Where  the  oil  vapor  is  arranged  to  be    drawn 
into  the  cylinder  with  the  incoming  air  the  governor 


FIG.  25. 

acts  on  the  exhaust-valve,  holding  it  open  during  the 
suction  stroke,  thus  preventing  the  inlet  of  vapor  to 
the  cylinder. 

(d)  By  acting  on  the  vapor  inlet-valve,  allowing 
this  valve  to  open  only  when  an  impulse  to  the  piston  is 
required. 

Engines  driving  dynamos  for  electric  lighting  and 
requiring  very  close  regulation  are  preferably  governed 
by  the  system  of  throttling  or  reducing  the  explosive 
pressures  in  the  cylinder.  Thus,  when  the  engine  ex- 
ceeds the  standard  speed  for  which  the  governor  is  set, 
only  part  of  the  vapor  or  oil  is  allowed  to  enter  the 


ON    DESIGNING    OIL    ENGINES.  47 

vaporizing  chamber  or  cylinder.    The  mixture  of  oil, 


FIG.  26. 

vapor  and  air  is  accordingly  regulated,  and  the  mean 
effective  pressure  as  required  is  suitably  reduced. 


48  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  indicator  diagram  illustrates  the  variation  of 
the  M.  E.  P.  in  the  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  each 
expansion  line  registering  a  different  pressure.  No 
explosion  is  in  this  case  omitted  entirely,  and  conse- 
quently the  running  of  the  engine  is  even  and  regular. 
A  governor  acting  directly  on  the  oil  supply  pump  is 
shown  at  Fig.  240.  Another  type  of  governor  operat- 
ing on  the  fuel  oil  pump  directly  is  shown  at  Fig.  24^. 
In  this  instance  the  governor  is  placed  within  the 
fly-wheel  and  is  also  arranged  to  operate  directly  on 
the  oil  pump.  It  consists  of  frame  F  fastened  con- 
centrically to  inside  of  flywheel  cam  ring  R,  which  has 
projection  B  and  cam  C  projecting  and  operating  each 
revolution  (with  2-cycle  type)  on  roller  A,  causing 
movement  of  plunger  P.  W  is  a  wedge  on  lever  L  which 
separates  R  from  F.  If  the  speed  is  increased  above 
normal  the  counterweight  H  overcomes  the  tension  of 
spring  S,  moving  the  wedge  outwards,  allowing  the 
buffer  G  to  move  from  plunger  P ;  thus  the  lift  of  C 
is  reduced  and  the  length  of  pump  stroke  reduced. 

The  hit-and-miss  type  of  governor  is  shown  in  Fig. 
26.  This  device  is  made  in  many  different  forms,  the 
mode  of  working  being  similar  in  them  all — namely, 
the  inertia  of  a  weight  controlled  by  the  spring.  When 
the  speed  of  the  crank-shaft  is  increased  the  weight  is 
moved  correspondingly  quicker ;  its  inertia  is  then  in- 
creased, and  the  strength  of  the  spring  is  overcome 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  engaging  parts  of  the  valve 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES. 


49 


motion  to  be  disengaged  during  one  or  more  revolu- 
tions, and  consequently  where  this  device  acts  on  the 
oil-pump  the  charge  of  oil  is  missed,  and  no  explosion 
takes  place  during  the  following  cycle  of  operations. 

THE  OIL-SUPPLY  PUMP  is  placed  against  the  oil-tank 
and  base  of  engine  or  on  bracket  bolted  to  cylinder.  It 
is  usually  made  of  bronze,  with  steel  ball  valves.  Du- 
plicate suction  and  discharge  valves  are  advantageous 
in  case  one  valve  on  either  side  should  leak.  Figs.  27 
and  28  represent  oil-pumps  as  used  on  the  Hornsby- 
Akroyd  oil  engine. 

THE  FUEL  OIL-TANK  is  placed  in  or  bolted  against 


FIG.  29. 

the  base  of  the  engine.  It  is  then  made  of  cast  iron  as 
part  of  the  base  of  the  engine;  otherwise  the  tank  is 
made  of  galvanized  iron  and  separate  from  the  engine 


5O  OIL   ENGINES. 

base,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  out  when  required  for 
cleaning. 

A  filter  or  strainer  for  cleaning  the  oil  as  it  passes 
to  the  oil-pump  which  can  be  placed  where  convenient 
and  is  separate  from  the  oil  tank  is  shown  at  Fig.  29. 

HORIZONTAL    AS    COMPARED    WITH    THE    VERTICAL 
TYPE  OF  OIL  ENGINES. 

THE  accessibility  of  the  piston  with  the  horizontal 
engine  is  considered  a  great  advantage.  The  piston 
can  always  be  seen  and  can  be  drawn  out  of  the  cylin- 
der and  cleaned  and  replaced  with  ease  in  this  style  of 
engine,  whereas  in  a  vertical  engine  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  cylinder  cover,  and  perhaps  other  parts,  to 
gain  access  to  the  piston,  and  also  it  is  necessary  to 
have  sufficient  head  room  above  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
for  chain-block  to  lift  the  piston  and  connecting-rod. 
The  lubrication  of  the  piston  is  also  considered  more 
effective  in  the  horizontal  than  in  the  vertical  type  of 
engine.  Furthermore,  the  connecting-rod  is  more  ac- 
cessible for  adjustment  both  at  the  crank-pin  end  and 
at  the  piston  end  in  the  horizontal  type.  This  difficulty, 
however,  has  been  overcome  by  arranging  a  removable 
plug  in  the  cylinder  casing,  which  when  taken  out 
allows  access  for  adjustment  to  the  piston  end  of  the 
connecting-rod.  European  designers  seem  much  in 
favor  of  the  horizontal  type  of  engines,  and  although 
some  leading  makers  build  the  vertical  type  of  engines, 
yet  the  greater  number  would  appear  to  be  made  of  the 
horizontal  type. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  51 

VERTICAL  ENGINES  for  situations  in  buildings  where 
space  is  restricted  and  where  sufficient  head  room  is 
available  have  the  great  advantage  of  occupying  less 
floor  space  than  the  horizontal  type.  The  mechanical 
efficiency  of  a  vertical  engine  is  somewhat  greater, 
the  friction  of  the  piston  being  less  than  in  the  hori- 
zontal type  of  engine. 

The  vertical  type  for  some  special  purposes  can,  of 
course,  only  be  used,  but  for  ordinary  uses  the  horizon- 
tal type  of  engine  at  present  seems  to  be  most  in  favor, 
one  consideration  being,  the  difficulty  of  suitably  ar- 
ranging the  vaporizing  and  spraying  details  in  the 
vertical  type  of  engine,  which  are  usually  placed 
close  to  the  cylinder,  and  are,  therefore,  not  so  fully 
under  the  control  of  the  attendant  as  in  the  horizontal 
type. 

MULTI-CYLINDER  ENGINES. — For  industrial  pur- 
poses and  situations  where  simplicity  of  construction  is 
of  prime  importance  and  where  the  engine  will  have 
little  or  no  skilled  attention,  the  single  cylinder  hori- 
zontal engine  is  preferred  on  account  of  fewer  mov- 
ing parts.  Objection  is  frequently  made  to  a  multi- 
cylinder  or  twin-cylinder  engine  on  this  account.  The 
multi-cylinder  engine,  however,  has  the  advantage  that 
an  impulse  is  received  at  the  crank-pin  with  greater  fre- 
quency than  is  the  case  with  the  single  cylinder  en- 
gine. For  example,  in  the  single  four-cycle  engine 
one  impulse  is  received  during  two  revolutions,  while 
in  the  two-cycle  single  cylinder  engine  one  impulse 
per  revolution  takes  place.  With  the  multi-cylinder 
engine,  for  instance,  three-cylinder  type,  four-cycle 


52  OIL  ENGINES. 

single  acting,  three  impulses  are  received  by  the  crank- 
pin  each  two  revolutions  and  with  the  three-cylinder 
two-cycle  type  six  impulses  in  two  revolutions.  The 
multi-cylinder  engine,  therefore,  has  an  important  ad- 
vantage over  the  single  cylinder  type  for  such  purposes 
as  electric  lighting  and  especially  for  operating  alter- 
nating generators  running  in  parallel  where  least  pos- 
sible cyclic  variation  is  required. 

Again,  the  multi-cylinder  engine  has  the  adavantage, 
considering  that  each  impulse  is  more  frequent,  of  not 
requiring  the  heavy  fly-wheel  necessary  with  the  single 
cylinder  type  as  explained  on  page  36.  Undoubtedly 
the  multi-cylinder  type  engine  requires  much  more  ad- 
justment of  bearings  than  those  of  the  single  cylinder 
type.  The  multi-cylinder  type  being  lighter  in  weight 
per  actual  horse-power  can  be  manufactured  cheaper 
per  horse-power  than  can  the  single  cylinder  type. 

WATER  INJECTION. — The  injection  of  a  small  amount 
of  water,  water  vapor,  or  steam  into  the  vaporizer  or 
cylinder  of  the  oil  engine  is  now  the  practice  of  several 
makers.  In  the  sectional  view  of  the  latest  type  of 
Crossley  vaporizer,  Fig.  3,  is  shown  a  water  inlet  valve 
to  the  vaporizer  whereby  a  very  small  amount  of  water 
is  injected  into  the  vaporizer  as  well  as  air  and  fuel. 
The  Priestman  engine  has  an  arrangement  also  allow- 
ing a  small  amount  of  water  to  be  drawn  into  the 
combustion  chamber  when  the  engine  is  operating  at 
full  load. 

The  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine  is  arranged  to  allow  steam 
formed  in  the  water  jacket  surrounding  the  cylinder 
to  enter  the  combustion  chamber  with  the  fuel.  The 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  53 

advantages  claimed  for  the  injection  of  water,  etc., 
are  first,  that  the  engine  works  more  quietly  with  it 
than  without.  The  heavy  blow  of  the  explosion  and 
the  metallic  knock  heard  at  full  load  is  reduced ;  and 
secondly,  with  the  water  injection  a  somewhat  higher 
compression  can  be  used  without  fear  of  pre-ignition ; 
and  thirdly,  the  lubrication  of  the  cylinder  is  assisted 
and  the  piston  is  maintained  in  a  cleaner  condition. 
The  chief  disadvantage  is  found  when  the  supply  of 
water  is  not  very  carefully  regulated.  The  timing  of 
ignition  may  be  retarded  or  become  irregular  if  too 
much  water  is  admitted. 

TIME  OF  INJECTION  OF  FUEL. — In  the  descriptive 
matter  relative  to  the  Diesel  engine,  page  216,  it  is 
pointed  out  that  the  injection  of  the  fuel  takes  place 
after  compression  of  the  air  in  the  cylinder  is  com- 
pleted. This  was  a  feature  peculiar  to  this  engine. 
Several  other  makers  are  now  adopting  this  feature; 
that  is,  increasing  the  compression  and  injecting  the 
fuel  as  (or  a  few  degrees  before)  the  piston  reaches 
the  inner  dead  centre.  The  increased  compression  re- 
sults in  increased  economy  and  more  complete  com- 
bustion of  the  fuel.  In  the  latest  type  Hornsby  oil 
engines,  in  the  De  la  Vergne  F.  H.  type,  and  in  the 
smaller  2-cycle  type  described  in  Chapters  X.  and  XII. 
this  feature  is  referred  to. 

ERECTING  AND  ASSEMBLING  OF  OIL  ENGINES. — 
The  following  remarks  relating  to  the  erection  of  oil 
engines  contain  a  few  hints  on  important  points  of 
this  work,  the  information  being  intended  for  those 


54  OIL    ENGINES. 

readers  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  assembling  of 
explosive  engines  to  be  cognizant  of  the  parts  requiring 
careful  handling  and  accurate  workmanship. 

BEARINGS. — In  scraping  in  the  crank-shaft  bearings 
of  horizontal  engines  the  shaft  must  bear  perfectly  on 
that  part  of  the  bearings  as  shown  in  Fig.  30,  marked 


FIG.  30. 

A,  the  greater  pressure  being  on  the  part  of  the 
.bearing  which  is  between  the  centre  line  of  engine 
drawn  through  the  cylinder  and  the  part  through 
which  the  vertical  centre  line  of  fly-wheel  is  drawn. 
A  slight  play  of  about  1-64"  can  be  given  to  the  crank- 
shaft sideways  in  the  bearings  in  smaller-sized  engines, 
and  1-32  of  an  inch  in  the  larger  sizes  is  recommended. 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL    ENGINES.  55 

In  vertical  engines  the  bearings  receive  both  the 
pressure  of  explosion  and  the  pressure  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  fly-wheels  in  the  same  part,  and  these 
bearings  require  the  same  care  at  those  points  in  the 
lower  half  of  the  bearing — namely,  about  45°  each  side 
of  the  centre  line  drawn  vertically  through  the  cylinder 
and  crank-shaft.  The  bearing  surfaces  of  the  caps  and 
of  that  part  where  the  pressure  is  not  so  great  do  not 
require  such  careful  scraping  as  those  parts  where  the 
pressure  is  greater. 

PISTON  AND  PISTON-RINGS. — The  fitting  of  piston 
and  piston-rings  is  very  important  and  requires  accu- 
rate workmanship.  The  cylinder  and  piston  are 
machined  to  standard  ring  and  gauge,  one-thousandth 
per  inch  diameter  of  cylinder  play  being  allowed.  The 
metal  of  the  piston  not  being  of  uniform  thickness 
after  machining  may  slightly  lose  its  shape,  and  some- 
times requires  slight  hand-filing  when  being  fitted  to 
the  cylinder.  The  piston  without  rings  can  be  moved 
easily  up  and  down  inside  the  cylinder.  If  necessary 
the  piston  should  be  eased  slightly  by  hand  on  the 
sides,  being  left  a  good  and  close  fit  at  the  top  and 
bottom  bearing  in  horizontal  engines.  The  sides 
should  not  rub  hard  in  any  part.  The  piston,  if  the 
rings  are  in  place,  can  be  fitted  to  the  cylinder  from 
the  back  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  can  be  moved  around 
the  front  end,  being  inserted  into  cylinder  as  far  as 
the  rings. 

THE  DISTANCE-PIECES  or  junk-rings  should  not  touch 
the  sides  of  the  cylinder,  the  bearing  of  the  piston  be- 
ing only  on  the  trunk  of  the  piston  itself.  The  front 


OIL   ENGINES. 


part  of  the  piston  can  also  be  bevelled  for  f  "  in  length, 
1-32"  in  diameter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

THE  PISTON-RINGS,  if  made  as  in  Fig.  15,  should 
have  in  the  smaller  sizes  1-32"  play,  in  the  larger  sizes 
1-16",  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  31.  This  space  allows 
for  expansion  when  the  ring  becomes  heated  in  work- 
ing. It  is  advantageous  to  insert  dowel-pins  in  the 
piston  grooves  to  maintain  the  rings  in  the  same  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  space  in  each  ring  is  out  of  line  with 
that  in  the  following  ring,  as  also  shown  in  Fig.  31. 


/•" 

A%^ 

i 

/ 

\ 

L 

t 

1, 

FIG.  31. 

THE  PISTON  is  made  in  one  piece,  the  rings  being 
sprung  on  over  the  junk-rings.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  with  oil  engines  greater  heat  is  evolved  in 
the  cylinder  than  in  steam  engines.  Consequently  the 
slightest  play  is  allowed  to  the  piston-rings  at  the  sides, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  made  so  tight  a  fit  as  in  steam- 
engine  practice. 

THE  CONNECTING-ROD  BEARINGS  at  piston  end  are 


ON    DESIGNING   OIL   ENGINES.  57 

scraped  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  should  be  allowed 
slight  play  sideways  on  the  gudgeon-pin.  In  smaller- 
sized  engines  1-64"  can  be  allowed,  this  amount  being 
slightly  increased  in  the  larger-sized  engines.  The 
crank-pin  bearing  of  the  connecting-rod  is  usually 
allowed  a  very  slight  play  sideways  also. 

THE  AIR  AND  EXHAUST  VALVES  should  not  be  a 
very  close  fit  in  their  guides.  If  the  fit  in  these  guides 
is  made  too  close  when  the  valve-box  becomes  heated 
the  consequent  expansion  may  cause  the  valve-stem  to 
stick  in  the  guides,  and  leakage  of  the  valve  will  result. 

The  valve-seats  are  by  some  considered  best  left 
sharp,  being  not  more  than  1-32"  wide  before  grinding. 

THE  WATER-JACKETS  of  cylinder  or  valve-boxes 
should  be  all  tested  -by  hydraulic  pressure  to  at  least 
1 20  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch  before  the  piston  is 
put  into  the  cylinder. 

THE  FLY-WHEELS  require  careful  keying  onto  crank- 
shaft. If  the  keys  are  not  a  good  fit  and  not  driven 
home  tight  the  engine  may  knock  when  running.  Two 
keys  in.  larger-sized  engines  are  usually  supplied,  one 
being  a  sunk  key,  which  is  fitted  to  keyway  in  recessed 
shaft  as  well  as  to  the  keyway  cut  in  the  fly-wheel  hub, 
the  second  key  being  only  recessed  in  the  fly-wheel 
and  being  concave  on  the  lower  side  to  fit  the  shaft. 

OIL-SUPPLY  PIPES  which  have  to  withstand  pres- 
sure should  have  the  fittings  "  sweated"  on,  the  unions 
being  screwed  into  place  on  the  brass  or  copper  pipe 
while  the  solder  is  still  in  a  liquid  state. 

CYLINDERS  made  of  two  or  more  parts  require  the 
joints  of  internal  sleeve  to  be  made  with  great  care. 


58  OIL  ENGINES. 

Asbestos  or  a  copper  ring  is  used  to  make  this  joint; 
sometimes  wire  gauze  with  asbestos  is  used,  which  has 
been  found  to  give  very  good  results. 

CYLINDER  LUBRICATORS. — The  lubrication  of  the  pis- 
ton in  explosive  engines  is  of  great  importance.  On 
those  engines  where  it  is  convenient  to  use  it,  a 
mechanical  type  of  lubricator  is  added.  This  device 
consists  of  an  oil  reservoir  into  which  a  wire  attached 
to  a  revolving  spindle  is  periodically  dipped,  the  wire 
being  also  arranged  to  wipe  over  a  projection  which 
conducts  the  oil  to  a  receptacle  placed  above  the  reser- 
voir and  connected  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder. 


FIG.  310. 

The  most  efficient  and  economical  lubricator  for  the 
piston  is  the  force  feed  system  shown  in  Fig.  310, 
where  the  lubricant  is  forced  by  pump  and  reaches  the 
piston  at  the  proper  time  and  position  for  best  results 
in  lubrication. 

[Tables  giving  the  Calorific  Values  of  Oils,  etc.,  will  be 
found  at  end  of  Book.] 


CHAPTER  III. 
TESTING    ENGINES. 

THE  chief  object  in  testing  explosive  engines  at  the 
factory  is  to  ascertain  that,  in  actual  working  at  dif- 
ferent loads,  the  several  adjustments  are  correct.  In 
the  steam  engine  a  physical  process  is  completed,  re- 
quiring only  the  inlet,  expansion,  and  the  outlet  of  the 
steam  to  and  from  the  cylinder,  whereas  in  the  oil 
engine  a  chemical  process  is  gone  through  consisting 
of  the  introduction  of  the  proper  mixture  of  vaporized 
oil  and  air  into  the  cylinder,  the  ignition  of  this  ex- 
plosive mixture  and  the  consequent  combustion.  All 
this  must  be  accomplished  before  the  piston  receives  an 
impulse.  In  order,  therefore,  that  the  best  results 
be  obtained,  the  different  mechanisms  controlling  these 
processes  are  each  set,  and  record  of  their  performance 
during  the  test  is  taken  with  the  indicator,  which  results 
are  again  verified  by  some  form  of  brake  attached  to 
the  fly-wheels  or  pulley  of  the  engine,  and  are  further 
checked  in  an  oil  engine  by  the, record  of  the  amount 
of  oil  which  is  consumed  for  the  power  developed. 
Where  more  detailed  tests  are  required,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  exhaust  gases,  the  amount  of  air  consumed 
in  the  cylinder,  its  temperature  and  barometrical  pres- 


6o 


OIL   ENGINES. 


sure,  together  with  the  amount  of  cooling  water  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  cylinder  to  the  required  temperature, 
are  each  noted  and  recorded.  When  the  test  is  made 
with  a  new  engine,  it  should  be  first  started  up  and  run 
without  anv  load  for  a  short  time.  The  cams  are  set  as 


FIG.  32. 

shown  in  diagram,  Fig.  32,  for  engines  having  both  ail 
and  exhaust  valves  actuated  from  the  crank-shaft. 
The  air-valve  closes,  as  shown,  just  after  the  crank-pin 
has  passed  the  out  centre,  the  exhaust-valve  opening  at 
about  85  per  cent,  of  the  full  stroke  and  closing  just 


TESTING    ENGINES.  6l 

after  the  air-valve  has  opened.  Where  the  air-inlet 
valve  is  automatic  the  exhaust-cam  only  is  set,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram,  and  the  air-valve  spring  should 
be  adjusted  so  that  the  incoming  air  is  not  choked  in 
passing  the  valve  during  the  suction  stroke. 

The  oil-pipes  leading  to  the  vaporizer  or  sprayer 
should  be  well  washed  before  starting  the  engine,  as 
with  a  new  engine  grit  and  filings  may  get  into  the 
pipes,  and  when  the  engine  is  started  the  oil-valves  and 
valve-seats  may  be  damaged.  The  oil-filter  also  must 
be  in  proper  shape  and  clean,  so  that  the  oil  can  flow 
freely  to  the  oil-pipe. 

After  the  vaporizer  and  igniter  has  been  well 
heated  a  little  oil  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  vapor- 
izer or  combustion  chamber;  then  the  fly-wheels  can 
be  turned  forward  a  few  times,  after  which  the  engine 
should  start  freely.  The  method  of  starting  the  differ- 
ent types  of  engines  is  explained  in  detail  in  Chap- 
ter VII.  An  engine  is  sometimes  found  difficult  to 
start  the  first  time  owing  to  some  defect  in  the  castings 
or  workmanship,  and  if  it  fails  to  start,  the  engine 
should  be  examined  in  detail  to  ascertain  the  cause. 

First  test  the  oil-inlet  or  spraying  device  by  hand ; 
then  test  the  pressure  of  compression  in  the  cylinder 
by  turning  the  fly-wheels  backward.  The  relief-cam 
being  out  of  action,  it  should  not  be  possible  with  full 
compression  to  turn  the  fly-wheel  past  the  back  centre. 
If  the  compression  is  so  slight  that  the  pressure  in  the 
cylinder  can  be  overcome  and  the  fly-wheel  turned 
during  the  compression  period  by  hand,  then  either 
the  piston-rings  are  leaking  or  there  is  leakage  past 


TESTING    ENGINES.  63 

the  air  and  exhaust  valves  or  through  some  of  the 
joints  or  gaskets.  Air  and  exhaust  valves  and  piston- 
rings  should  be  examined,  and  any  appearance  of  leak- 
age remedied  by  refitting  the  piston-rings,  as  already 
explained  in  Chapter  II.,  and  the  valves,  if  necessary, 
should  be  reground  in.  New  engines  also  fail  to  start 
at  times  by  reason  of  the  leakage  of  water  from  the 
cooling  jacket  into  the  cylinder  owing  to  faulty  gas- 
kets or  flaws  in  the  castings.  This  leakage  of  water 
may  sometimes  be  ascertained  by  failure  to  obtain  an 
explosion  in  the  combustion  chamber  when  all  condi- 
tions in  the  cylinder  and  vaporizer  are  apparently  in 
good  order  for  the  engine  to  start  properly.  If  leakage 
of  water  is  suspected  but  cannot  be  detected  in  this 
way,  the  water-pressure  pump  should  be  attached  and 
the  water-jackets  tested  to  a  pressure  of  120  Ibs.  The 
crank-shaft  and  other  bearings  require  careful  oiling 
at  first,  and  full  lubrication  should  be  given  to  the 
piston ;  otherwise  it  may,  perhaps,  work  dry  and  cut 
the  cylinder. 

After  working  a  few  hours,  the  piston  should  be 
withdrawn  and  examined ;  any  hard  places  on  the  sides 
should  be  eased  either  by  careful  hand  filing  or  other- 
wise. The  junk-rings  (or  distance-pieces  between  the 
rings)  should  be  eased  if  necessary,  so  that  they  do  not 
work  hard  on  the  cylinder.  The  full  bearing  of  the 
piston  should  be  from  about  -J"  from  rings  forward  to 
within  |"  of  the  front  end,  as  already  explained  in 
Chapter  II. 

The  terms  "  brake,"  or  "  developed,"  or  "  actual" 
or  "  effective"  H.  P.,  are  synonymous,  and  are  used 


64  OIL    ENGINES. 

to  signify  the  power  which  an  engine  is  capable  of 
delivering  at  the  fly-wheel  or  belt-pulley.  This  power 
is  variously  designated,  and  here  we  shall  use  the  ab- 
breviation B.  H.  P.  to  express  it.  The  indicated  H.  P. 
represents  the  whole  power  developed  by  combustion 
in  the  cylinder,  but  it  is  not  considered  such  a  reliable 
method  of  measuring  the  power  of  explosive  engines 
as  that  of  the  dynamometer  or  brake,  because  the  in- 
dicator-card only  gives  the  power  developed  by  one  or 
more  explosions,  whereas  the  brake  can  be  applied  for 
any  length  of  time  and  shows  the  average  performance 
of  the  engine  for  a  longer  period  of  time. 

Fig.  33  illustrates  the  engine  as  arranged  for  testing 
in  the  factory.  The  fuel  tank  shown  at  the  left  hand  is 
placed  there  for  the  purpose  of  running  the  oil-con- 
sumption test.  The  fuel  pump  is  connected  tempo- 
rarily to  this  tank  instead  of  taking  its  supply  of  oil 
from  the  tank  in  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  indicator 
is  also  shown  in  place  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder.  The 
device  for  reducing  the  stroke  of  the  crank  to  suitable 
dimensions  for  the  indicator  is  also  shown  in  place 
bolted  to  the  bed-plate  of  the  engine.  The  brake  con- 
sists of  rope  £"  thick,  with  wooden  guides  with  bal- 
ances at  each  extremity.  The  upper  balance  is  sus- 
pended by  adjustable  hook  suitably  arranged  for  alter- 
ing the  load  on  the  brake. 

Various  kinds  of  dynamometer  brakes  are  used  for 
testing;  that  shown  in  Fig.  33  is  considered  by  the 
writer  as  being  satisfactory.  The  brake  should  be 
attached  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  load  being 
taken  as  the  number  of  pounds  shown  ori  the  upper 


FIG.  33&. 


(To  face  page  65.) 


FIG.  34- 


TESTING    ENGINES.  65 

scale  less  those  shown  on  the  lower  scale.     Brake  or 
actual  H.  P.  is  calculated  thus  : 


33,000 

W=  net  load  in  pounds. 

C  =  circumference  of  wheel. 

N  =  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  circumference  of  the  wheel  should  be  measured 
at  the  centre  of  the  rope,  thus  allowing  for  half  the 
rope  thickness. 

The  Prony  brake  being  water  cooled  is  recommended 
for  larger  engines. 

The  power  developed  with  this  brake  as  shown  in 
Fig.  33&  is  ascertained  as  follows  : 

zRx-nX  /  X  Qxn. 
Jt>.  Jtl.  Jr.  =  -^—  —  —  ^—  ^—  -  —^— 
33.000 

When  R  =  radius  of  wheel  in  feet. 

Q  =  weight  in  pounds  on  scale  -f-  weight  of 

brake  apparatus. 

/  =  distance  in  feet  from  center  of  shaft  to 
point  of  contact  of  lever  with  scale. 

TT  =  3.1416. 

«  =  R.  P.  M. 

The  Alden  dynamometer  or  absorption  brake  shown 
at  Fig.  330  is  advantageously  used  for  measuring  the 
horse-power  when  the  prony  brake  or  rope  brake  can- 
not be  used.  The  power  developed  is  calculated  in  the 
same  way  as  with  the  prony  brake,  Fig.  33??.  The  dy- 
namometer can  be  operated  by  belt  or  direct  connected 
to  the  shaft  of  the  engine. 


66  OIL    ENGINES. 

THE  INDICATOR  is  attached  to  the  cylinder  by  first 
screwing  into  the  cylinder  the  indicator  cock,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  340,  to  which  the  indicator  is  applied  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

The  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  engine  must  be  re- 
duced to  suit  the  dimensions  of  the  diagram,  which  is 


FIG.  340. 

usually  about  3"  long.     This  is  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  a  device,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35  or  35^. 
Indicated  H.  P.  is  calculated  thus : 


PLAE 
I.H.P.= . 

33,000 


P  =  mean  effective  pressure  in  Ibs. 

L  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet. 

A  =  area  in  inches  of  piston. 

E  =  number  of  explosions  per  minute. 


TESTING    ENGINES.  67 

The  M.  E.  P.  of  indicator-card  is  obtained  by  the 
use  of  the  planimeter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  or  by  meas- 
uring the  card  by  scale  and  taking  the  average  pres- 
sure. 

The  illustration    (Fig.  36)    shows  the  design  and 


FIG.  35. 

arrangement  of  the  pajts  of  the  Crosby  gas-engine  in- 
dicator. The  cylinder  proper  is  that  in  which  the 
movement  of  the  piston  takes  place.  The  piston  is 
formed  from  a  solid  piece  of  tool  steel,  and  is  hardened 
to  prevent  any  reduction  of  its  area  by  wearing.  Shal- 


68 


OIL 


low  channels  in  its  outer  surface  provide  an  air  pack- 
ing, and  the  moisture  and  oil  which  they  retain  act  as 
lubricants,  and  prevent  undue  leakage  by  the  piston. 


1 


The  piston  is  threaded  inside  to  receive  the  lower 
end  of  the  piston-rod  and  has  a  longitudinal  slot 
which  permits  the  bottom  part  of  the  spring  with 


TESTING    ENGINES.  69 

its  bead  to  drop  on  to  a  concave  bearing  in  the  upper 
end  of  the  piston-screw,  which  is  closely  threaded 
into  the  lower  part  of  the  socket :  the  head  of  this 
screw  is  hexagonal,  and  may  be  turned  with  a  hollow 
wrench. 

The  swivel-head  is  threaded  on  its  lower  half  to 
screw  into  the  piston-rod  more  or  less  according  to  the 
required  height  of  the  atmospheric  line  on  the  diagram. 
Its  head  is  pivoted  to  the  piston-rod  link  of  the  pencil 
mechanism.  The  pencil  mechanism  is  designed  to 
eliminate  as  far  as  possible  the  effect  of  momentum, 
which  is  especially  troublesome  in  high-speed  work. 
The  movement  of  the  spring  throughout  its  range  bears 
a  constant  ratio  to  the  force  applied,  and  the  amount  of 
this  movement  is  multiplied  six  times  at  the  pencil 
point. 

SPRINGS. — In  order  to  obtain  a  correct  diagram,  the 
height  of  the  pencil  of  the  indicator  must  exactly 
represent  in  pounds  per  square  inch  the  pressure  on 
the  piston  of  the  oil  engine  at  every  point  of  the  stroke  ; 
and  the  velocity  of  the  surface  of  the  drum  must  bear 
at  every  instant  a  constant  ratio  to  the  velocity  of  the 
engine  piston. 

THE  PISTON  SPRING  is  made  of  a  single  piece  of 
spring  steel  wire,  wound  from  the  middle  into  a  double 
coil,  the  spiral  ends  of  which  are  screwed  into  a  brass 
head  having  four  radial  wings  to  hold  them  securely 
in  place;  80  to  200  Ib.  spring  is  a  suitable  pressure 
for  this  work. 

This  type  of  indicator  is  ordinarily  made  with  a 
drum  one  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter,  this  being 


70  OIL   ENGINES. 

the  correct  size  for  high-speed  work,  and  answering 
equally  well  for  low  speeds. 

To  remove  the  piston  and  spring,  unscrew  the  cap; 
then  take  hold  of  the  sleeve  and  lift  all  the  connected 
parts  free  from  the  cylinder.  This  gives  access  to  all 
the  parts  to  clean  and  oil  them. 

To  change  the  location  of  the  atmospheric  line  of 
the  diagram. — First,  unscrew  the  cap  and  lift  the 
sleeve,  with  its  connections,  from  the  cylinder;  then 
turn  the  piston  and  connected  parts  toward  the  left, 
and  the  pencil  point  will  be  raised,  or  to  the  right  and 
it  will  he  lowered.  One  complete  revolution  of  the 
piston  will  raise  or  lower  the  pencil  point  \" ',  and  this 
should  be  the  guide  for  whatever  amount  of  elevation 
or  depression  of  the  atmospheric  line  is  needed. 

To  change  to  a  left-hand  instrument. — If  it  is  desired 
to  make  this  change :  First,  remove  the  drum,  and  then 
with  the  hollow  wrench  remove  the  hexagonal  stop 
screw  in  the  drum  base,  and  screw  it  into  the  vacant 
hole  marked  L  ;  next,  reverse  the  position  of  the  adjust- 
ing handle  in  the  arm ;  also,  the  position  of  the  metallic 
point  in  the  pencil  lever;  then  replace  the  drum,  and 
the  change  from  right  to  left  will  be  completed. 

The  tension  on  the  drum  spring  may  be  increased  or 
diminished  according  to  the  speed  of  the  engine  on 
which  the  instrument  is  to  be  used,  as  follows :  Re- 
move the  drum  by  a  straight  upward  pull ;  then  raise 
the  head  of  the  spring  above  the  square  part  of  the 
spindle,  and  turn  it  to  the  right  for  more  or  to  the  left 
for  less  tension,  as  required ;  then  replace  the  head  on 
the  spindle. 


TESTING   ENGINES.  Jl 

Before  attaching  the  indicator  to  an  engine,  allow  air 
to  blow  freely  through  pipes  and  cock  to  remove  any 
particles  of  dust  or  grit-that  may  have  lodged  in  them. 

The  indicator  should  be  attached  close  to  the  cylin- 
der whenever  practicable,  especially  on  high-speed  en- 
gines. If  pipes  must  be  used  they  should  not  be  smaller 
than  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  short  and  direct 
as  possible. 

The  indicator  can  be  used  in  a  horizontal  position, 
but  it  is  more  convenient  to  take  diagrams  when  it  is 
in  a  vertical  position,  and  this  can  generally  be  ^ob- 
tained, when  attaching  to  a  vertical  engine,  by  using  a 
short  pipe  with  a  quarter  upward  bend. 

The  motion  of  the  paper  drum  may  be  derived  from 
any  part  of  the  engine,  which  has  a  movement  coinci- 
dent with  that  of  the  piston.  In  general  practice  and 
in  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  piston  itself  is  chosen 
as  being  the  most  reliable  and  convenient. 

When  the  indicator  is  in  position  and  the  cord-drum 
or  other  reducing  motion  is  correctly  placed,  it  is  next 
necessary  to  adjust  the  length  of  the  cord,  so  that  the 
drum  will  clear  the  stops  at  each  extreme  of  its  rota- 
tion. The  engine  should  be  allowed  to  run  for  a  few 
minutes  to  heat  up  before  taking  a  diagram.  The  at- 
mospheric line  should  be  drawn  by  hand,  preferably 
after  the  diagram  has  been  taken  and  when  the  instru- 
ment is  heated  up;  the  card  is  then  taken  with  full- 
rated  load  on  the  brake.  It  is  well  to  allow  the  pencil 
to  go  several  times  over  the  paper  so  as  to  procure 
a  card  showing  several  explosions,  and  thus  the  aver- 
age pressure  can  be  taken. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  pressure  of  the  pencil  on  the  paper  can  be  ad- 
justed by  screwing  the  handle  in  or  out,  so  that  when  it 
strikes  the  stop  there  will  be  just  enough  pressure  on 
the  pencil  to  give  a  distinct  fine  line.  The  line  should 


FIG.  37- 


not  be  heavy,  as  the  friction  necessary  to  draw  such  a 
line  is  sufficient  to  cause  errors  in  the  diagram. 

THE  PLANIMETER  or  averaging  instrument  is  shown 
at  Fig.  37.  No.  i  planimeter  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 
instrument,  having  but  one  wheel,  and  is  designed  to 
measure  areas  in  square  inches  and  decimals  of  a 


TESTING   ENGINES.  73 

square  inch.  The  figures  on  the  roller  wheei  D  repre- 
sent units,  the  graduations  tenths,  and  the  vernier  E 
gives  the  hundredth*.  F  is  the  tracer  and  P  is  the 
pivot 

Fig.  37  represents  the  Xo.  2  planimeter,  which  is 
the  same  as  the  No.  I,  with  the  addition  of  a  counting 
disc  G,  the  figures  on  which  represent  tens  and  mark 
complete  revolutions  of  the  roller-wheel.  By  this 
means  areas  greater  than  ten  square  inches  can  be 
measured  with  facility.  The  result  is  given  in  square 
inches  and  decimals,  and  the  reading  from  the  roller 
wheel  and  vernier  is  the  same  as  with  Xo.  i. 

Fig.  37  represents  the  Xo.  3  planimeter,  which  dif- 
fers somewhat  in  design  from  the  two  previously  de- 
scribed. It  is  capable  of  measuring  larger  areas,  and 
by  means  of  the  adjustable  arm  A  giving  the  results  in 
various  denominations  of  value,  such  as  square  deci- 
meters, square  feet  and  square  inches;  also  of  giving 
the  average  height  of  an  indicator  diagram  in  fortieths 
of  an  inch,  which  makes  it  a  very  useful  instrument  in 
connection  with  indicator  work. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MEASURING  AN  INDICATOR  DIAGRAM 
WITH  A  XO.  I  OR  XO.  2  PLANIMETER. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  flat,  even,  unglazed 
surface  for  the  roller  wheel  to  travel  upon.  A  sheet  of 
dull-finished  cardboard  serves  the  purpose  very  well. 
Set  the  weight  in  position  on  the  pivot  end  of  the  bar 
P,  and  after  placing  the  instrument  and  the  diagram 


74 


OIL    ENGINES. 


in  about  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  370,  press  down  the 
needle  point  so  that  it  will  hold  its  place,  set  the  tracer ; 
then  at  any  given  point  in  the  outline  of  the  diagram, 
as  at  F,  adjust  the  roller  wheel  to  zero.  Now  fol- 
low the  outline  of  the  diagram  carefully  with  the  tracer 


FIG.  370. 

point,  moving  it  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow, 
or  that  of  the  hands  of  a  watch,  until  it  returns  to  the 
point  of  beginning.  The  result  may  then  be  read  as 
follows :  Suppose  we  find  that  the  largest  figure  on 
the  roller  wheel  D  that  has  passed  by  zero  on  the  ver- 
nier £  to  be  2  (units)  and  the  number  of  graduations 
that  have  also  passed  zero  on  the  vernier  to  be  4 


TESTING   ENGINES.  »  75 

(tenths),  and  the  number  of  graduation  on  the  vernier 
which  exactly  coincides  with  the  graduation  on  the 
wheel  to  be  8  (htmdredths),  then  we  have  2l|8  square 
inches  as  the  area  of  the  diagram.  Divide  this  by  the 
length  of  the  diagram,  which  we  will  call  3  inches,  and 
we  have  .8266  inch  as  the  average  height  of  the  dia- 
gram. Multiply  this  by  the  scale  of  the  spring  used  in 
taking  the  diagram,  which  in  this  case  is  40,  and  we 
have  33.06  pounds  as  the  mean  effective  pressure  per 
square  inch  on  the  piston  of  the  engine. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  THE  No.  3  PLANI METER. 

No.  3  planimeter  is  somewhat  differently  manipu- 
lated, although  the  same  general  principle  obtains. 
The  figures  on  the  wheels  may  represent  different 
quantities  and  values,  according  to  the  particular  ad- 
justment of  the  sliding  arm  A.  If  it  is  desired  merely 
to  find  the  area  in  square  inches  of  an  indicator  dia- 
gram, set  the  sliding  arm  so  that  the  lo-square-inch 
mark  will  exactly  coincide  with  the  vertical  mark  on 
the  inner  end  of  the  sleeve  H  at  K.  The  sliding  arm  is 
released  or  made  fast  by  means  of  the  set-screw  5". 

With  the  wheels  at  zero  and  the  planimeter  and  dia- 
gram in  the  proper  position,  trace  the  outline  carefully 
and  read  the  result  from  the  roller  wheel  and  vernier, 
the  same  as  directed  for  the  No.  I  and  No.  2  instru- 
ments. 

THE  INDICATOR-CARD  shows  what  is  occurring  inside 
the  cylinder  and  combustion  chamber  during  the  differ- 
ent periods  of  the  revolution.  It  gives  a  record  of  the 


OIL    ENGINES. 


variations  in  pressure,  and  also  the  exact  points  of  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valves.  With  the  Otto  or 
Beau  de  Rochas  cycle  the  four  strokes  are  as  follows : 
Suction  (A),  compression  (B),  expansion  (C),  ex- 
haust (D).  The  lines  in  the  diagram  are  correspond- 
ingly lettered  (see  Fig.  38),  and  they  represent  each  of 
these  processes. 


FIG.  38. 

Fig.  39  shows  a  good  working  diagram,  in  which 
the  mixture  of  air  and  hydrocarbon  gas  is  correct  and 
where  combustion  is  practically  complete.  The  igni- 
tion line  in  this  diagram  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  the 
atmospheric  line,  but  inclines  slightly  toward  the 
right  hand  at  top.  The  diagram  also  shows  the  open- 
ing of  the  exhaust-valve  at  the  proper  time — namely, 
at  85  per  cent,  of  the  stroke.  The  compression  line 
represents  the  proper  pressure,  and  the  air-inlet  and 
exhaust  lines  indicate  correct  proportioned  valves  and 
inlet  and  outlet  passages. 


I  .'I 


TESTING   ENGINES. 


77 


In  considering  and  analyzing  diagrams  the  follow- 
ing hints  will  perhaps  be  of  service.  If  the  suction 
line  of  the  diagram  is  shown  below  the  atmospheric 


FIG.  39- 


FIG.  40. 

line,  as  in  Fig.  40,  then  the  air-inlet  to  the  cylinder  is 
known  to  be  in  some  way  choked.  Where  the  air-valve 
is  automatic  this  defect  may  be  caused  by  the  valve- 


78  OIL   ENGINES. 

spring  being  too  strong  and  it  accordingly  requires 
weakening ;  or  the  area  of  the  air  suction-pipe,  if  this  is 
used,  may  be  too  small  or  this  connection  may  have  too 
many  elbows  or  bends  in  it,  and  should  be  either  of  in- 
creased diameter  or  the  bends  should  be  eliminated. 
Again,  the  valve  itself  may  have  too  small  an  area,  or 
if  actuated  have  insufficient  lift  (the  proper  lift  of  a 
valve  is  £  of  its  diameter),  or  the  period  of  opening 
of  the  valve  may  not  be  correct,  and  the  setting  of  the 
cams  should  be  carefully  examined,  and,  if  necessary, 
altered  in  accordance  with  the  diagram  of  valve  open- 
ing, as  shown  at  Fig.  32. 

If  the  compression  line  B  shows  insufficient  pres- 
sure of  compression,  this  indicates  leakage,  which  is 
probably  due  either  to  leaky  piston  or  valves.  If  this 
leakage  is  past  the  piston-rings,  the  escaping  air  may 
be  heard  and  the  lubricating  oil  will  be  seen  at  each  ex- 
plosion period  to  be  splashing  and  blown  past  the  rings 
of  the  piston.  If  no  signs  of  piston  leakage  are  noticed, 
then  examine  oil-inlet  air  and  exhaust  valves  and  valve- 
seats  very  carefully;  also-note  the  various  joints  in  the 
valve-box  and  otherwise  where  leakage  might  possibly 
occur.  In  engines  without  water-jackets  around  the 
valve-box  the  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases  continually 
passing  through  the  valve-chamber  may  sometimes 
cause  the  valve-seats  to  expand  unequally  when  heated, 
and  consequent  leakage  will  occur  when  working. 

If  leakage  is  detected  at  the  valves  they  must  be  re- 
ground,  and  also  any  hard  places  on  the  valve-stems 
or  guides  where  they  become  heated  should  be  eased  so 
that  the  valves  will  work  easily  and  efficiently  when  the 


TESTING   ENGINES.  79 

seats  and  guides  are  expanded,  and,  perhaps,  slightly 
distorted,  by  the  heat  of  working.  (It  is  understood 
that  these  remarks  refer  to  new  engines  solely.)  With 
some  engines  means  of  increasing  the  compression  by 
movable  plates  on  the  connecting-rod  crank-pin  end 
or  other  somewhat  similar  means  are  provided  which 
can  be  changed,  if  necessary,  thus  decreasing  the 


FIG.  41. 

amount  of  clearance  in  the  cylinder.  If  the  piston- 
rings  are  without  leakage  and  they  have  worked  into 
their  proper  bearings  in  the  cylinder,  and  if  all  the 
valves  are  in  perfect  order  and  without  leakage,  and 
still  the  compression  pressure,  as  shown  on  the  diagram 
and  as  already  explained,  requires  increasing,  then  the 
clearance  in  the  cylinder  can  be  slightly  decreased 
where  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  The  vertical  ignition  line 
shows  the  timing  of  the  ignition,  and  also  the  initial 
pressure  of  explosion.  If  this  line  is  as  represented  in 
Fig.  41  the  ignition  is  known  to  be  too  early,  and 
should  be  arranged  to  occur  somewhat  later.  The 


8o 


OIL   ENGINES. 


diagrams  as  shown  in  Fig.  42  has  the  ignition  line  too 

late. 

•The  timing  of  the  ignition  is  regulated  as  follows : 
With   electric   ignition   by   altering   the   period   of 


FIG.  42. 

sparking.  Thus,  if  later  ignition  is  required  the  ignit- 
ing device  must  not  be  allowed  to  spark  till  the  crank- 
pin  has  travelled  nearer  to  the  dead  centre.  With  the 
hot-tube  ignition  and  no  timing  valve,  the  length  of  the 


r 


TESTING    ENGINES.  8l 

tube  can  be  changed.  For  example,  to  retard  the 
ignition  the  tube  should  be  lengthened  slightly  and  its 
temperature  somewhat  decreased.  In  engines  where 
neither  of  these  means  of  ignition  is  used,  but  where 
the  ignition  is  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  vaporizer- 
chamber  or  somewhat  similar  device,  the  timing  of  the 
ignition  is  controlled  by  the  heat  of  the  vaporizer- 
chamber  and  also  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  process 
of  compression.  Where  the  ignition  in  this  case  is  to 
be  retarded,  the  compression  should  be  reduced  slightly 
and  the  vaporizer  or  other  igniting  device  maintained 
at  a  less  heat.  The  ignition,  however  actually  caused, 
is  always  influenced  by  the  heat  of  the  cylinder  walls 
and  the  temperature  of  the  incoming  air,  which  corre- 
spondingly increases  or  decreases  the  heat  caused  by 
the  compression  before  explosion  takes  place.  The 
ignition  is  usually  adjusted  when  testing  engines  with 
the  cooling  water  issuing  from  the  cylinder  water- 
jackets  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  130°  Fahr. 

The  expansion  line  is  marked  C,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38. 
This  line  indicates  the  initial  pressure  of  combustion, 
and  it  also  shows  the  developed  pressure  decreasing  as 
the  volume  of  the  cylinder  becomes  greater  with  the 
piston  moving  forward.  The  effective  pressure  devel- 
oped is  measured  from  this  line  to  the  compression 
line,  and  varies  according  to  the  richness  of  the  ex- 
plosive mixture.  When  the  engine  is  in  actual  use  - 
the  governor  controls  this  pressure  automatically. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  is  greater  in  some  types 
of  engines  than  it  is  in  others,  and  varies,  as  stated  in 
Chapter  II.,  from  40  to_  75  Ibs.  The  amount  of  the 


82 


OIL    ENGINES. 


pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  dependent  upon  the  method 
of  vaporization,  upon  the  proper  mixture  of  the  gas 


FIG.  43. 

and  air  before  explosion,  and  also  upon  the  pressure 
of  the  compression.  As  in  gas  engines,  the  tendency  in 
oil-engine  practice  is  toward  higher  compression  to 


TESTING    ENGINES.  83 

increase  their  efficiency.  Where  the  mean  effective 
pressure  is  low  the  relative  power  of  the  engine  will, 
of  course,  also  be  reduced.  The  greatest  mean  effective 
pressure  should  be  attained  when  the  oil  is  thoroughly 
vaporized,  is  properly  mixed  with  the  air  and  when 
the  compression  is  as  high  as  practicable  without  pre- 
ignition  taking  place. 

Should  the  exhaust  lines  D  appear  as  in  Fig.  43,  then 
it  is  understood  that  the  discharge  of  the  exhaust  gases 
is  in  some  way  choked ;  this  may  be  caused  by  the  ex- 
haust-valve itself  being  too  small,  or  to  the  periods  of 
the  opening  of  the  valve  being  incorrect.  (See  dia- 
gram, Fig.  32.)  Again,  this  defect  may  be  caused  by 
too  many  sharp  bends,  too  small  diameter  exhaust- 
pipe,  or  possibly  too  long  an  exhaust-pipe.  Theoreti- 
cally no  back  pressure  should  be  allowed  during  the 
exhaust  period,  but  usually  in  practice  a  slight  pres- 
sure of  about  one  pound  is  recorded. 

Each  pound  per  square  inch  of  back  pressure  shown 
by  the  exhaust  line  shows  a  back  pressure  in  the  cylin- 
der, which  is  negative  work  to  be  overcome  by  the 
piston,  and  represents  a  slight  loss  of  power  by  the 
engine. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  indicator  is  in  proper 
condition,  without  any  play  in  the  pencil  arm,  and  that 
the  piston  is  free  and  well  lubricated.  Lost  motion  in 
the  indicator  may  show  peculiarities  in  the  diagram 
which  to  an  inexperienced  manipulator  may  be  the 
cause  of  trouble. 

TACHOMETERS  (Fig.  44). — These  instruments  have 
been  designed  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  at  a 


84 


OIL  ENGINES. 


glance  the  number  of  revolutions  made  in  a  given  time 
by  rotating  shafts.  Their  construction  is  based  on 
centrifugal  power,  and  they  consist  of  a  case  inside  of 
which  are  mounted  a  pendulum  ring,  in  connection 
with  a  fixed  shaft,  a  sliding  rod  and  an  indicating 


FIG.  44. 

movement.  The  apparatus  is  very  sensitive,  and  will 
indicate  the  slightest  deviation  in  speed. 

PORTABLE  TACHOMETER  (Fig.  440). — This  instru- 
ment is  similar  in  construction  to  the  tachometer  for 
permanent  attachment.  By  applying  it  by  hand  to  the 
centre  of  rotating  shafts,  it  will  instantly  and  correctly 
indicate  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  shaft  per 
minute. 

Fig.  44&  illustrates  a  new  form  of  speed  counter,  the 


TESTING   ENGINES.  85 

invention  of  Mr.  A.  J.  Hill,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  which, 
besides  counting,  also  registers  the  number  of  revolu- 


FIG.  440. 

tions  of  the  shaft.     This  is  accomplished  by  simply 
punching  a  continuous   slip  of  paper,   as  shown   in 


Fig.  44C.     The  watch  mechanism  in  the  device  also 
periodically  records  a  detent  in  the  paper  slip,  thus 


marking  the  periods  of  time  while  the  shaft  actuates 
the  mechanism  of  the  device,  causing  a  detent  for  each 


86  OIL   ENGINES. 

revolution.  The  writer  has  not  yet  had  an  opportunity 
of  testing  this  interesting  and  useful  invention. 

When  the  full  brake  H.  P.  is  obtained,  which  should 
be  developed  for  at  least  a  period  of  one  hour  con- 
tinuously, the  consumption  fuel  test  is  made. 

THE  MECHANICAL  EFFICIENCY  of  oil  engines,  as 
shown  by  records  of  various  tests,  should  be  from  80 
per  cent,  to  88  per  cent.,  although  the  efficiency  is 
much  less  than  this  when  the  engine  has  been  working 
only  a  short  time  and  before  the  crank-shaft  and  other 
bearings  and  piston  are  worn  in.  To  ascertain  the 
mechanical  efficiency  of  an  engine,  first  calculate  the 
I.  H.  P.,  as  already  described ;  then  figure  the  B.  H.  P., 
as  already  shown.  Then: 

B.  H.  P. 

Mechanical  efficiency  = — 

I.  H.  P. 

For  instance :  If  the  B.  H.  P.  of  an  engine  =  10  and 
the  I.  H.  P.  =  12.5, 

10 

Mechanical  efficiency  = 

12-5 
=  So  per  cent. 

THERMAL  EFFICIENCY. — The  ratio  of  the  heat  util- 
ized by  the  engine,  as  shown  by  the  power  (B.  H.  P.) 
developed,  as  compared  with  the  total  heat  contained 
in  the  fuel  absorbed  by  the  engine,  is  known  as  the 
thermal  efficiency.  This  can  be  obtained  by  the  follow- 
ing formula: 

42.63  X  60 

cxx 


TESTING   ENGINES.  87 

C  =  consumption  of  fuel  in  pounds  per  B.  H.  P.  per 

hour. 
X  =  calorific  value  of  the  fuel  per  pound  in  heat 

units. 

The  thermal  efficiency  of  different  makes  of  oil  en- 
gines varies.  In  the  older  type  of  engines  a  thermal 
efficiency  of  15  per  cent,  was  the  maximum,  as  shown 
by  the  following  disposition  of  heat  by  Mr.  Dugeld 
Clerk,  applicable  to  older  engines.  In  the  modern  en- 
gines (see  test,  page  248)  a  thermal  efficiency  equiva- 
lent to  approximately  28  per  cent,  has  been  obtained. 

Heat  shown  on  diagrams  per  I.  H.  P. .   15.3  per  cent. 

Heat  rejected  in  water-jackets 26.8  per  cent. 

Heat   rejected    in    exhaust   and   other 

losses 57.9  per  cent. 

100  per  cent. 

The  above  table  of  disposition  of  heat  is  applicable 
to  smaller  engines.  The  efficiency  of  the  gas  engine  is 
approximately  27  per  cent,  while  the  efficiency  of  the 
complete  steam  plant  does  not  exceed  12  per  cent. 

FUEL  CONSUMPTION  TEST. — This  is  generally  made 
with  all  new  engines  before  they  leave  the  factory,  and 
is  advantageous  as  a  check  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
engine  as  shown  by  the  indicator  and  the  brake  tests, 
and  this  test  is  also  useful  to  ascertain  the  exact  con- 
sumption of  fuel  by  the  engine  in  actual  operation. 


88  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  oil  is  weighed,  the  amount  being  gauged  by 
weight  of  fuel  rather  than  by  measuring  the  oil.  The 
tank  or  other  receptacle  from  which  the  fuel  is  drawn 
is  first  filled  with  kerosene.  The  tank  is  then  placed 
on  platform  scales,  and  the  weight  is  carefully  taken 
and  time  noted  when  the  engine  is  ready  to  begin  this 
test.  The  full  load  required  is  then  adjusted  on  the 
brake  while  the  engine  is  running  at  its  normal  speed. 

The  oil  can  also  be  measured  by  means  of  a  pointer 
placed  in  the  tank,  the  tank  being  filled  until  the  pointer 
is  just  visible  before  the  engine  is  ready  for  the  test 
to  commence.  The  oil  is  then  weighed  in  a  separate 
vessel,  and  a  quantity  of  the  fuel  is  poured  into  the  test 
tank.  When  the  test  is  completed,  the  oil  is  taken  out 
of  the  tank  until  the  pointer  shows  again  just  as  it  did 
at  the  commencement  of  the  test.  The  weight  of  the 
kerosene  remaining  in  the  vessel  is  deducted  from  the 
whole  weight  as  at  first  recorded,  and  the  difference  is 
the  amount  consumed  by  the  engine.  It  is  usual  to 
continue  this  test  for  at  least  one  hour's  duration.  Dur- 
ing the  consumption  test,  the  load  on  the  brake  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  are  recorded  and  the 
average  brake  horse-power  developed  is  taken.  The 
exact  amount  of  oil  consumed  per  hour  being  also 
known,  the  consumption  of  oil  per  H.  P.  hour  is  simply 
ascertained. 

Light  spring  indicator  diagrams  are  taken  to  ascer- 
tain the  efficiency  of  the  air  and  exhaust  valves,  ports 
and  passages.  That  shown  at  Fig.  45  is  taken  with 
-fa  spring.  The  indicator  must  be  fitted  with  special 
stop  arrangement  to  prevent  the  pencil  going  above 


TESTING   ENGINES.  89 

the  drum  of  the  indicator  when  taking  light  spring 
cards. 

It  is  advantageous  to  have  some  method  of  limiting 
the  supply  of  oil  to  the  vaporizer  arranged  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  engine  from  consuming  an  excess  of  oil  at  any 
time.  This  gauge  should  be  made  immediately  after 
the  consumption  test  has  been  proved  as  satisfactory, 
and  to  avoid  possible  mistake  by  alteration  of  the  oil 
supply.  As  already  described,  if  too  much  oil  enters 


SUCTION 

FIG.  45- 

the  vaporizer,  bad  combustion  will  follow  and  carboni- 
zation will,  perhaps,  result,  thus  rendering  the  piston 
sticky  and  gummy,  and  materially  reducing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  engine. 

The  exact  periods  for  the  movements  of  the  valve 
and  cams  should  also  be  clearly  marked  on  the  gearing 
or  elsewhere,  so  that  if  at  any  future  time  the  crank- 
shaft is  taken  out  or  the  gearing  (or  other  mechanism) 
between  the  crank-shaft  and  the  cam-shaft  removed, 


90  OIL    ENGINES. 

the  relative  position  of  the  crank-shaft  with  the  valve 
mechanism  can  be  readily  ascertained  and  the  exact 
position  of  the  cams  again  found  without  difficulty. 

EXHAUST  GASES. — With  an  oil  engine  it  is  impor- 
tant to  note  the  color  of  the  exhaust  gases,  which  may 
vary  a  little  according  to  the  weather.  Where  com- 
plete combustion  is  taking  place,  the  exhaust  gases  arc 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  invisible.  When  the  engine  is 
first  started,  these  gases  will,  perhaps,  be  white,  grad- 
ually getting  bluer. 

If  an  oil  engine  is  working  well  and  if  the  combus- 
tion is  complete,  the  exhaust  gases  will  not  be  seen  but 
only  heard,  and  the  piston  will  also  remain  clean  in 
working. 

TESTING  THE  FLASH  POINT  OF  KEROSENE. — Fig.  460 
shows  apparatus  for  ascertaining  the  "  open  fire"  test 
or  the  temperature  at  which  kerosene  will  flash  or  ex- 
plode. This  device  consists  of  a  small  copper  vessel  in 
which  the  kerosene  is  placed.  This  vessel  is  immersed 
in  a  larger  vessel  containing  water,  which  forms  part 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  apparatus. 

A  thermometer  is  suspended  with  its  lower  part  in 
the  oil.  A  heating  lamp  placed  under  the  receptacle 
containing  the  water  raises  the  temperature  of  both 
water  and  oil  as  required.  A  lighted  taper  is  passed  to 
and  fro  over  the  top  of  the  oil  as  it  becomes  heated. 
When  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  oil  flashes  the  tem- 
perature is  noted,  and  that  is  termed  the  "  flashing 
point"  of  the  oil  thus  tested. 

The  "  Abel"  oil-tester  is  shown  at  Fig.  46^.     This 


TESTING   ENGINES. 


was  originated  by  Sir  Frederick  Abel,  and  hence  its 
name.  The  tests  made  with  this  apparatus  are  those 
known  as  the  "  Abel  closed"  test.  Such  tests  are  recog- 
nized by  the  law  (at  the  present  time)  of  Great  Britain. 


FIG.  46. 


The  device  consists  of  a  copper  vessel  containing  water 
in  which  is  an  air-chamber.  In  the  air-chamber  is 
placed  an  oil-cup  made  of  gun-metal.  This  oil-cup  is 
supplied  with  tight-fitting  lid,  and  is  provided  with  gas 


92  OIL   ENGINES. 

or  oil  lamp  suitably  arranged  to  ignite  the  oil  vapor 
when  required. 

Two  thermometers  are  required,  one  immersed  in 
the  oil  and  the  other  in  the  water,  each  having  a  tight 
joint  around  it. 

The  following'  are  the  instructions  for  performing 
this  test:  The  heating  vessel  or  water-bath  is  filled 
until  the  water  flows  out  at  the  spout  of  the  vessel. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  commencement  of 
the  test  is  130°  Fahrenheit.  The  water  having  been 
raised  to  the  proper  temperature,  the  oil  to  be  tested  is 
poured  into  the  petroleum  cup,  until  the  level  of  the 
liquid  just  reaches  the  point  of  the  gauge  which  is  fixed 
in  the  cup.  If  necessary,  the  samples  to  be  tested  should 
be  cooled  down  to  about  60°.  The  lid  of  the  cup  with 
the  slide  closed  is  then  put  on,  and  the  oil-cup  is  placed 
in  the  water-bath  or  heating  vessel,  the  thermometer  in 
the  lid  of  the  cup  being  adjusted  so  as  to  have  its  bulb 
immersed  in  the  liquid.  The  test-lamp  is  then  placed 
in  position  upon  the  lid  of  the  cup,  the  lead  line,  or 
pendulum,  which  has  been  fixed  in  a  convenient  posi- 
tion in  front  of  the  operator,  is  set  in  motion,  and  the 
rise  of  the  thermometer  in  the  petroleum  cup  is 
watched.  When  the  temperature  has  reached  about 
66°  the  operation  of  testing  is  to  be  commenced,  the 
test  flame  being  applied  at  once  for  every  rise  of  i°  in 
the  following  manner : 

The  slide  is  slowly  drawn  open  while  the  pendulum 
performs  three  oscillations,  and  is  closed  during  the 
fourth  oscillation.  Thus  a  flame  is  made  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  vapor  above  the  oil.  Thfe  temperature 


TESTING   ENGINES.  93 

at  which  the  vapor  flashes  is  noted,  and  is  called  the 
flashing  point  of  the  oil.  If  it  is  desired  to  employ  the 
test  apparatus  to  determine  the  flashing  points  of  oils 
of  very  low  volatility,  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  modi- 
fied as  follows : 

The  air-chamber  which  surrounds  the  cup  is  filled 
with  cold  water,  to  a  depth  of  i^  inches,  and  the  heat- 
ing vessel  or  water-bath  is  filled  with  cold  water.  The 
lamp  is  then  placed  under  the  apparatus  and  kept  there 
during  the  entire  operation.  If  a  very  heavy  oil  is  be- 
ing dealt  with,  the  operation  commences  with  water 
previously  heated  to  120°  instead  of  with  cold  water. 

VISCOSITY  OF  OIL. — It  is  frequently  advantageous  to 
ascertain  the  viscosity  of  different  oils.  The  device 
shown  at  Fig.  46^  is  manufactured  by  C.  I.  Tagliabue 
especially  for  this  purpose.  The  viscosity  of  an  oil 
with  this  apparatus  is  found  by  noticing  the  number  of 
seconds  required  for  fifty  cubic  centimetres  of  oil  to 
pass  the  open  faucet  or  valve. 

To  test  the  viscosity  of  oil  at  212°  Fahr.  with  this 
apparatus,  first  pour  water  into  the  boiler  through 
opening  A,  unscrew  safety-valve  until  water-gauge 
shows  that  the  boiler  is  full,  open  stop-cock  B,  making 
a  direct  connection  between  the  boiler  and  upper  vessel 
which  surrounds  the  receptacle  in  which  the  oil  to  be 
tested  is  placed.  Suspend  a  thermometer  so  that  its  bulb 
will  be  about  £  inch  from  the  bottom  of  the  oil-bath. 
After  carefully  straining  70  cubic  centimetres  of  the  oil 
to  be  tested,  which  must  be  warmed  in  the  case  of  very 
heavy  oils,  pour  same  into  the  oil-bath.  Close 


94 


OIL   ENGINES. 


stop-cocks  D  and  £.  Screw  the  extension  F  with 
rubber  hose  attached  into  the  coupling  G,  and  let  the 
open  end  of  the  hose  be  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water, 


FIG.  46c. 

which  will  prevent  too  large  a  loss  of  steam.  Place 
lamp  or  Bunsen  burner  under  boiler ;  screw  steel  nipple 
marked  212°  on  to  stop-cock  H ;  the  apparatus  is  then 
ready  to  use.  After  steam  is  generated,  wait  until  the 


TESTING    ENGINES.  95 

thermometer  in  oil-bath  shows  a  temperature  of  from 
209°  to  211° ;  then  place  the  50  cubic  centimetre  glass 
under  stop-cock  H,  so  that  the  stream  of  oil  strikes  the 
side  of  test-glass,  thereby  preventing  the  forming  of 
air-bubbles ;  and  when  the  thermometer  indicates  its 
highest  point  open  the  faucet  H  simultaneously  with 
the  starting  of  the  timing  watch.  When  the  running 
oil  reaches  the  50  cubic  centimetre  mark  in  the  neck  of 
the  test-glass  the  watch  is  instantly  stopped  and  the 
number  of  seconds  noted. 

To  ascertain  the  viscosity,  multiply  the  number  of 
seconds  by  two,  and  the  result  will  be  the  viscosity  of 
the  oil.  For  example :  If  50  cubic  centimetres  of  oil 
runs  through  in  loif  seconds,  the  viscosity  will  then 
be  203. 

To  test  the  viscosity  of  oils  at  70°  Fahr.  screw  the 
steel  nipple  marked  70  on  to  faucet  H ;  close  stop- 
cock B,  closing  communication  between  boiler  and 
upper  vessel ;  also  close  stop-cock  E.  Fill  upper  vessel 
through  opening  G  with  water  at  a  temperature  as  near 
70°  as  possible,  also  having  the  oil  to  be  tested  at  the 
same  temperature ;  hang  the  thermometer  in  position, 
and  after  stirring  the  oil  thoroughly,  blow  through  rub- 
ber tube  at  D  to  thoroughly  mix  the  water ;  should  the 
thermometer  show  higher  or  lower  than  70°  add  cold 
or  warm  water  until  the  desired  temperature  is  at- 
tained. Then  proceed  as  before  stated. 

[For  tables  of  tests  of  various  oil  engines,  see  end  of 
book.] 


CHAPTER    IV. 

COOLING    WATER-TANKS,    AND    OTHER 
DETAILS. 

WATER  is  always  required  to  keep  the  cylinders  of 
explosive  engines  cool,  and  is  necessitated  by  the  great 
heat  evolved  in  such  engines,  which  heat  would,  if  it 
were  not  carried  away,  prevent  the  proper  working 
of  an  engine  by  too  great  expansion  of  the  piston  and 
by  burning  the  lubricating  oil.  Where  running  water 
is  not  available,  water-tanks  are  sometimes  used. 
The  engine  water-jackets  are  connected  to  the  tanks 
as  shown  in  Fig.  47.  It  is  important  that  the  water 
piping  rises  all  the  way  from  the  engine  to  the  tanks. 
The  water,  when  tanks  are  used,  circulates  by  gravi- 
tation— that  is,  the  cold  water  being  slightly  heavier 
than  the  hot  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  passes 
from  the  tank  to  the  water-jacket,  and  returns  as  warm 
water  to  the  top  of  the  tank  to  be  cooled  off  and  again 
sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

The  cooling  water-tanks  must  be  of  not  less  capac- 
ity than  70  gallons  of  water  per  brake  H.  P.  of  engine. 
The  tanks  when  installed  should  preferably  be  placed 
in  the  best  location  for  cold  air  to  circulate  around 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS   AND   OTHER   DETAILS.      97 

them,  so  that  the  water  in  the  tanks  may  cool  off  as 
quickly  as  possible. 

Where  an  engine  is  required  to  work  for  more  than 
ten  hours  per  day,  the  tanks  should  be  of  larger  capac- 
ity than  that  above  stated,  or  provision  should  be  made 


FIG.  47. 

to  add  cold  water  to  the  tanks  when  the  water  becomes 
heated  above  120°  Fahrenheit. 

The  waste-water  drain-pipe  from  the  tanks  should 
be  arranged  to  allow  the  hot  water  to  run  off  from  the 
top  of  the  tanks  and  the  cold-water  inlet-pipe  arranged 
to  enter  near  the  bottom.  The  circulating-water  pipes 
connecting  the  tanks  to  engine  water-jacket  should  be 
large  enough  to  allow  the  water  to  circulate  freely. 
A  pipe  having  i£"  inside  diameter  is  considered  suit- 


98  OIL   ENGINES. 

able  for  the  smaller  size  of  engines  and  3"  diameter 
pipe  is  sufficient  for  engines  of  25  B.  H.  P.  and  ovei*. 

In  some  installations  cooling  water  is  available,  but 
may  require  pumping  to  the  engine.  In  such  cases  a 
pump  capable  of  delivering  more  than  ten  gallons  per 
brake  H.  P.  of  engine  should  be  used.  This  pump  can 
be  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft  of  engine  as  shown  in 
Fig.  50,  or  from  the  crank-shaft  by  eccentric  in  the 
usual  way.  A  rotary  pump  is  sometimes  used  to  ac- 
celerate the  circulation  of  water  in  hot  climates  with 
the  tank  system  of  cooling  water,  and  can  be  driven  by 
belting  from  the  crank-shaft  of  the  engine.  A  by-pass 
in  the  water-pipes  between  the  suction-pipe  and  the 
discharge-pipe  of  the  water-circulating  pump  is  advan- 
tageous, having  a  regulating  valve  in  the  by-pass.  If 
this  by-pass  is  not  made,  other  means  should  be  ar- 
ranged, so  that  the  supply  of  cooling  water  can  be  regu- 
lated to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  of  the  cylin- 
der of  the  engine — namely,  110°  to  130°  Fahrenheit. 
This  temperature  is  recommended  by  the  makers  of 
several  oil  engines. 

Where  neither  pump  to'  lift  and  circulate  cooling 
water  nor  water-tanks  are  necessary  and  where  water 
is  used  from  the  city  water-mains,  f "  inside  diameter 
pipe  is  sufficient  for  small  and  moderate-sized  engines. 
The  larger  size  may  have  i'f  diameter  pipe  connections 
to  cylinder. 

In  all  cases,  either  with  tanks,  water-pumps,  or 
where  the  water  is  connected  direct  from  the  city 
water-main,  provision  must  be  made  for  emptying  the 
cylinder  water-jacket  and  all  the  water-pipes  in  time  of 


COOLING  TOWER  ON  THE   TOP    OF  THE  BUILDING 


(To  face  p.  98.) 


FIG.  48^. 


(To  face  p.  99-) 


COOLING   WATER-TANKS   AND  OTHER  DETAILS.        99 

frost.  If  the  water  in  the  water-jacket  of  the  cylinder 
should  be  allowed  to  freeze,  the  cylinder  casting  may 
be  cracked,  and  this  may  necessitate  very  expensive 
repairs. 

RADIATORS  FOR  COOLING  PURPOSES. — This  is  an  ap- 
paratus for  cooling  the  cylinder  water  of  engines,  some- 
times used  where  space  is  not  available  for  cooling 
tanks,  and  where  the  cooling  tower  shown  in  Fig.  48^ 
cannot  be  used,  and  where  the  supply  of  water  is  lim- 
ited. This  device  consists  of  a  radiator  through  which 
the  cooling  water  is  forced  as  it  issues  from  the  engine. 
It  is  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  small  tubes  having 
radiating  flanges  around  them  or  of  other  suitable  de- 
sign, affording  a  large  cooling  surface.  A  fan  operated 
by  electric  motor  is  placed  in  front  of  the  radiator,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  and  is  arranged  to  furnish  a 
strong  current  of  air  passing  through  the  various  coils 
of  the  radiator,  taking  up  the  heat  of  the  water  in  the 
tubes  and  quickly  cooling  same.  The  power  required 
by  the  motor  is  approximately  10%  of  the  power  devel- 
oped by  the  engine.  A  difference  in  temperature  can 
be  obtained  between  the  inlet  and  outlet  water  when 
using  this  device  of  from  25°  to  30°  Fahr. 

About  40  gallons  of  water  should  be  circulated 
through  the  coils  per  actual  horse-power  per  hour. 
These  figures,  however,  depend  upon  the  design  of  the 
radiator  and  the  conditions  of  temperature  under 
which  it  is  to  operate. 

On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  power  absorbed 
by  the  motor,  this  outfit  is  only  suitable  for  special  in- 
stallations where  other  cooling  methods  cannot  be  used. 


TOO  OIL   ENGINES. 

COOLING   TOWERS 

Where  cooling  tanks  cannot  be  installed,  for  instance 
in  large  installations  where  enormous  capacity  of  tanks 
would  be  required,  a  cooling  tower  as  shown  at  Fig.  48 
and  Fig.  480  can  be  advantageously  used.  In  this  case, 
the  heated  water  as  it  issues  from  the  engine  cylinder 
water-jacket  is  pumped  to  the  top  of  the  cooling  tower, 
which  is  placed  in  a  position  to  allow  of  the  best  cooling 
effect,  the  water  simply  flowing  down  the  surfaces  of 
the  cooling  tower,  and  its  temperature  being  reduced 
by  coming  in  contact  with  the  air.  Where  large 
amounts  of  water  have  to  be  cooled,  a  fan  is  added  to 
increase  the  draught  of  air  coming  in  contact  with  the 
water  to  be  cooled. 

EXHAUST  SILENCERS. — The  noise  from  the  exhaust 
gases  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  a  great  objection 
to  the  use  of  explosive  engines,  but  this  is  chiefly  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  cast-iron  exhaust  silenc- 
ing chamber  supplied  with  engine  is  not  designed  to 
entirely  silence  the  exhaust,  but  is  only  regarded  as 
sufficient  to  partly  reduce  this  noise. 

Where  it  is  essential  that  the  exhaust  be  entirely 
silenced,  this  can  be  easily  accomplished  in  the  follow- 
ing way :  A  brick  pit  should  be  built  as  shown  in 
Fig.  49.  The  exhaust-pipe  from  the  engine  is  then 
connected  to  the  bottom  of  this  pit.  The  outlet-pipe 
to  the  atmosphere  is  connected  to  the  top  of  the  pit. 
The  space  inside  the  pit  should  be  filled  with  large 
stones,  as  shown  in  illustration.  These  stones  should 
be  about  six  inches  in  size,  so  that  crevices  are  left 


COOLING  WATER-TANKS  AND  OTHER  DETAILS.         IOI 

between  them  through  which  the  gases  can  penetrate. 
A  drain-pipe  should  be  arranged  to  allow  the  water 
to  flow  out  of  the  pit.  The  stone  or  cast-iron  plate 
covering  the  pit  is  securely  fastened  down  to  the 
masonry.* 

With  oil-engine  exhaust  gases  there  may  be  some 
odor.    When  it  is  necessary  that  both  the  noise  and  the 


odor  should  be  done  away  with,  an  exhaust  washer 
should  be  installed  instead  of  the  silencing  pit,  as -al- 
ready described.  This  apparatus  consists  of  a  tank,  to 
which  the  water  is  connected  as  it  issues  from  the 
water-jacket  of  the  engine-cylinder,  or  where  cooling 
*In  some  cases  the  connection  is  made  direct  from  the 
engine  to  the  silencer,  and  thence  to  the  pit,  the  exhaust  pipe 
leading  to  the  atmosphere  being  supported  from  the  cover- 
ing over  the  pit. 


102 


OIL    ENGINES. 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND   OTHER   DETAILS.     IO3 

tanks  are  used  the  water  should  be  taken  from  the 
main.  About  100  gallons  of  water  are  required  per 
hour.  The  exhaust-pipe  from  the  engine  valve-box  is 
also  connected  directly  to  this  tank.  The  outlet  of  the 
water  is  connected  from  the  tank  to  sewer  and  the  out- 
let exhaust-pipe  is  also  connected  in  the  usual  way  to 
the  top  of  the  building. 

The  exhaust  gases  by  this  arrangement  come  in 
contact  with  the  water  and  are  partly  condensed  and 
quite  purified.  The  pressure  and  noise  are  eliminated 
entirely,  any  deposit  of  carbon  left  in  the  gases  after 
combustion  is  carried  off  by  the  water  to  the  sewer, 
and  there  is  practically  no  odor  when  the  gases  escape 
from  the  exhaust-pipe  to  the  atmosphere  at  the  roof. 
This  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  The  sizes  given  for 
piping  and  tank  are  those  suitable  for  a  10  to  20  H.  P. 
oil  engine.  The  internal  piping  in  the  tank  is  so  placed 
to  avoid  any  pressure  which  is  created  inside  the  tank 
due  to  the  exhaust  gases  of  the  engine  from  entering 
the  sewer.  If  any  water  is  blown  out  at  the  top  of  the 
exhaust-pipe,  a  steam  exhaust-head  is  used  for  obviat- 
ing this.  This  apparatus  is  the  same  as  used  on  steam 
exhaust-pipes. 

Sizes  for  piping  and  tank  for  a  10  to  20  H.  P.  oil 
engine : 

Pipe  from  engine,  3"  diameter. 
Pipe  of  water  inlet,  f "  diameter. 
Pipe  to  atmosphere,  3"  diameter. 
Pipe  to  water  outlet,  2"  diameter. 
Size  of  tank,  2'  in  diameter  by  4'  high. 


104 


OIL    F.XG1XKS. 


When  it  is  required  to  partly  silence  the  noise  of 
exhaust  only  part  or  all  of  the  water  from  the  cooling 
jacket  can  be  turned  into  the  exhaust-pipe  directly 
from  the  water-jacket.  The  water  is  allowed  to  mn  to 
waste  again  at  the  silencer.  (See  Fig.  52.)  Wherever 
water  is  connected  to  the  exhaust-pipe,  care  must  be 
taken  that  none  can  under  any  condition  enter  through 


FIG.  52. 


the  exhaust  valve-box  into  the  cylinder  or  vaporizer 
of  the  engine.  Where  water  enters  the  silencer  or  the 
piping  under  pressure  from  the  city  main  or  otherwise. 
it  is  necessary  that  the  area  of  the  outlet-pipe  be  large 
enough  to  allow  the  water  to  drain  freely  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  If  the  water  is  not  allowed  free 
drainage,  it  may  quickly  fill  up  the  silencer,  and  per- 
haps enter  the  valve-box  of  the  engine,  causing  the 
engine  to  stop  working. 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AND   OTHER   DETAILS.    1 05 

SELF-STARTERS. — Engines  of  25  H.  P.  and  over 
should  be  provided  with  separate  means  of  starting 
besides  the  relief-cam  for  reducing  the  pressure  of 
compression  as  usually  provided  with  the  smaller  sizes 
of  engines.  The  weight  of  the  fly-wheels  and  recipro- 
cating parts  on  the  larger  engines  which  are  to  be  put 
in  motion  when  being  started  necessarily  entails  con- 
siderable exertion,  and  the  strength  of  two  men  is  re- 
quired to  do  this  work  where  no  other  means  is  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose. 

There  are  several  different  self-starting  devices 
made  for  gas  engines,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  accom- 
plish this  work  with  a  gas  than  with  an  oil  engine,  since 
with  the  former  gas  only  has  to  be  dealt  with  and  can 
be  readily  diluted  with  air  and  an  explosive  mixture 
formed,  whereas  with  the  oil  engine  the  fuel  must  be 
vaporized  first  and  then  mixed  with  the  air  before  an 
explosive  mixture  is  available  to  be  ignited  and  the  im- 
pulse on  the  piston  obtained.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
accomplish  these  various  operations  necessary  in  the 
oil  engine,  sufficient  power  must  be  independently  pro- 
vided to  turn  the  engine  crank-shaft  over  two  or  three 
revolutions  so  that  the  different  mechanisms  can  work, 
the  fuel  be  injected  or  inducted  into  the  cylinder  or  va- 
porizer, become  mixed  with  the  incoming  air  and  an 
explosion  obtained,  thus  giving  the  required  impulse. 
This  power  is  usually  derived  from  a  separate  air  reser- 
voir charged  during  the  previous  running  of  the 
engine  or  from  a  small  air-compressor  operated  by 
hand. 

The  self-starter  used  with  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  type 


io6 


OIL    ENGINES. 


of  oil  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  53.  The  reservoir  is  con- 
nected to  air  and  exhaust  valve-box  of  engine  through 
a  supplementary  valve-box  containing  two  check- 
valves.  These  check- valves  are  arranged  to  be  lifted 
from  their  seats  by  means  of  the  hand-lever  as  shown. 
The  following  are  the  instructions  in  detail  for  start- 
ing these  engines  by  means  of  this  device.  (These  re- 


FIG.  53- 

marks  are  generally  applicable  to  all  types  of  engines 
provided  with  starting  devices  of  this  principle.) 

See  that  the  valve  A  on  the  steel  receiver  is  open, 
and  also  the  cock  B  on  the  pipe  leading  from  the  hand 
air-pump.  Put  the  starting  lever  in  the  quadrant  at 
the  position  marked  "  Running  and  when  charged," 
and  pin  it  there.  Then  screw  down  the  valve  C  on  the 
double  valve-box,  and  pump  air  into  the  receiver  by  the 


COOLING    WATER-TANKS    AM)    OTHER    DETAILS.     IO/ 

air-pump  up  to  a  pressure  of  say  60  or  70  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch  as  shown  on  the  gauge.  Then  close  the 
cock  B  on  the  air-pump  pipe,  withdraw  the  pin  in  the 
starting  lever,  and  put  it  in  the  hole  by  the  side  of  the 
lever  to  act  as  a  stop ;  then  place  the  engine  ready  for 
starting  as  elsewhere  described.  Place  the  crank  a 
little  over  the  dead  centre  in  whichever  direction  the 
engine  is  intended  to  run,  unscrew  the  valve  C  in 
double  valve-box,  and  then  suddenly  push  the  starting 
lever  forward  to  the  end  of  the  quadrant,  and  the  en- 
gine will  start.  Pull  the  lever  back  immediately 
against  the  pin,  and  screw  down  the  valves  on  the 
double  valve-box  and  on  the  receiver.  Before  stop- 
ping the  engine  at  any  time,  pull  the  lever  back  and  pin 
it  in  hole  marked  "  To  charge ;"  unscrew  the  valves  on 
the  double  valve-box  and  receiver,  and  allow  the  engine 
to  pump  air  into  the  receiver  again  to  80  or  100  Ibs. 
pressure ;  put  the  lever  to  the  centre  hole  marked 
"  When  running,  and  when  charged,"  and  pin  it  there ; 
screw  down  the  valves  on  the  receiver  and  valve-box, 
and  the  air  pressure  in  the  receiver  will  be  retained  in 
readiness  to  start  the  engine  the  next  time  it  is  re- 
quired. If  an  air-pump  is  not  provided,  the  engine 
must  be  started'  in  the  usual  way  the  first  time,  by  pull- 
ing round  the  fly-wheel,  and  the  receiver  afterward 
filled  each  time  before  stopping. 

THE  UTILIZATION  OF  WASTE  HEAT  FROM  OIL  EN- 
GINES.— With  many  installations  of  oil  engines,  the 
question  of  utilizing  the  waste  heat  from  the  water- 
jacket  and  exhaust  gases  is  considered.  The  amount 
of  heat  lost  in  this  way  of  course  varies  with  different 


io8 


OIL    ENGINES. 


types  of  engines  according  to  their  thermal  efficiency. 
Reference  to  the  following  table  shows  the  amount  of 
heat  rejected  in  the  cooling  water  and  exhaust. 

The  two  greatest  disadvantages  to  the  utilization  of 
waste  heat  are:  First,  the  oil  engine  furnishes  heat 
only  when  in  operation,  and  therefore  a  separate  heater 
is  required  to  furnish  the  necessary  heat  when  the  en- 
gine is  stopped ;  and  secondly,  as  the  exhaust  gases 
from  most  oil  engines  are  not  clean,  accumulation  of 
carbon  results  in  the  passages  through  which  the 
heated  gases  pass  and  necessitates  frequent  cleaning. 

HEAT  BALANCE  PER  ACTUAL  OR  B.  H.  P. 
PER  HOUR. 


B.  T.  U. 

B 

T.  U. 

Received 

by 

en- 

Heat      equivalent 

gine 

0.8 

Ib 

of 

shown  on  brake 

fuel 

at 

!9, 

000 

(82$  mech.  ef.) 

3 

,104 

B.  T 

U. 

per 

Ib. 

Heat  lost  to  jacket 

19,000  X 

0.8 

Ib. 

water  47.4$  

7 

,200 

=    IS,200 

Heat   lost   to    ex- 

haust 25$  

3 

,800 

Lost   in   radiation 

and  unaccount- 

ed  for  

i 

Op6 

,  wy  w 

15,200 

[5 

,2OO 

The  above  table  is  based  on  0.8  Ib.  fuel  consump- 
tion per  actual  H.  P.  hour.  With  engines  having  a 
higher  economy,  the  amount  of  heat  rejected  would  be 
reduced.  Assume  the  efficiency  of  the  heating  appa- 


COOLING  WATER-TANKS  AND  OTHER  DETAILS,      log 

ratus  to  be  68%,  then  with  the  heat  rejected  by  the 
water  jacket,  viz.,  11,000  B.  T.  U.,  7,480  B.  T.  TJ. 
should  be  available  for  heating  purposes  per  actual 
H.  P.  per  hour. 


An  apparatus  designed  to  utilize  the  waste  heat  from 
the  exhaust  is  shown  at  Fig.  54.  The  heat  could  be 
utilized  either  by  water  circulation  or  by  means  of 
heated  air,  a  blower  being  used  to  pass  the  cold  air 
over  the  heated  water  pipes  or  by  steam  heat  direct. 
With  the  first  arrangement  piping  in  which  the  water 
is  circulated  would  have  to  be  of  sufficient  length  to 
allow  the  water  to  give  out  its  heat.  With  the  second 
arrangement  (that  of  heated  air)  sufficient  quantity 
of  air  should  be  passed  over  or  through  the  piping  in 
which  the  heated  water  flows.  This  heated  air  is  then 
passed  through  ducts  to  the  spaces  to  be  heated  in  the 
ordinary  way.  The  third  system,  namely,  steam  heat, 
would  require  the  exhaust  gases  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  above  the  boiling  point,  212°.  Each 
pound  of  steam  at  212°  evaporated  from  water  at  140° 
requires  1038  B.T.U.  As  previously  stated,  if  the 


IIO  OIL   ENGINES. 

efficiency  of  the  heating  apparatus  is  as  high  as 
then  there  is  available  from  the  exhaust  gases. 

3800  X  0.68  =  2584  B.T.U.  per  B.H.P.  per  hour. 

This  heat  will  be  sufficient  to  raise  about  2^2  Ibs.  of 
water  to  212°  steam  or  somewhat  less  than  this  amount 
to  steam  at  15  Ibs.  gauge  pressure.  It  is  estimated  that 
3.6  B.T.U.  are  required  to  maintain  a  cubic  foot  of 
space  at  70°  F.  when  the  weather  is  at  zero  outside, 
and  2.6  B.T.U.'s  are  required  to  maintain  the  same  tem- 
perature inside  when  the  outside  temperature  is  20°  F. 
These  figures,  of  course,  have  to  be  varied  with  dif- 
ferent buildings.  The  above  figures  are  also  estimated 
with  the  engine  running  at  full  load.  At  half  load 
only  about  60%  of  the  heat  above  referred  to  would  be 
available. 

EXHAUST  TEMPERATURE. — The  temperature  of  the 
exhaust  gases  is  difficult  to  ascertain  correctly.  The 
temperature  of  the  exhaust  from  the  Diesel  engine  is 
recorded  by  Professor  Denton  as  being  approximately 
740°  Fahr.  The  temperature  of  different  oil-engine 
exhaust  gases  varies,  and  it  is  probably  considerably 
above  that  figure.  This  temperature  varies  also,  of 
course,  according  to  the  size  of  the  engine,  and  also 
according  to  the  power  that  the  engine  is  developing. 
The  heat  is  greatest  at  full  load  and  on  the  largest 
engines. 


CHAPTER  V. 
OIL  ENGINES.  DRIVING  DYNAMOS. 

OIL  ENGINES  for  many  reasons  are  well  adapted  for 
driving  dynamos  generating  electric  current  in  isolated 
lighting  plants.  A  large  number  of  such  installations 
have  been  made  in  recent  years.  The  oil  engine  is  self- 
contained,  and,  unlike  a  gas  engine,  is  independent  of 
gas  works  or  gas-producer  plant  for  its  supply  of  fuel. 
Small  power  installations  with  oil  engines  as  prime 
movers  should  require  also  less  attention  than  a  plant 
equipped  with  steam  engine  and  boilers.  There  is 
probably  not  the  danger  there  is  with  a  steam  engine  of 
explosion,  and  as  the  fuel  used  is  ordinary  kerosene  of 
a  safe  flashing  point,  there  can  be  little  or  no  fear  of 
destruction  by  fire.  Practically,  no  hauling  of  fuel  is 
required,  nor  is  there,  with  an  oil  engine,  any  consump- 
tion of  water  if  storage  tanks  are  installed.  Further, 
an  oil  engine  does  not  deteriorate  if  only  required  for 
part  of  the  year  and  left  standing  idle  for  the  remainder 
of  the  time.'  With  these  and,  perhaps,  other  advan- 
tages possessed  by  oil  engines,  their  adaptability  for 
driving  dynamos  in  isolated  electric-lighting  and  power 
plants  may  be  understood.  Fig.  55  illustrates  an  oil 


OIL   ENGINES   DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  113 

engine  driving  dynamo  with  link  belt.  The  dynamo  is 
placed  close  to  the  engine  to  economize  floor  space. 

This  plant  is  arranged  with  the  cams  having  been 
set  for  the  engine  to  run  backwards. 

INSTALLATION. — In  order  that  the  plant  may  be  en- 
tirely satisfactory  and  give  the  best  results,  it  is  very 
essential  that  the  engine  and  dynamo  be  correctly 
located  with  regard  to  each  other  and  properly  installed 
at  the  outset. 

THE  FOUNDATIONS  both  for  the  engine  and  for  the 
dynamo  should  be  built  of  good  cement  concrete,  and 
should  be  placed  on  solid  ground,  so  that  they  are 
steady  and  without  vibration.  The  engine  foundation 
can  be  made  as  shown  at  Fig.  56.  When,  however,  the 
ground  that  the  foundation  is  built  upon  is  not  solid, 
it  is  preferred  to  build  the  foundation  more  tapered 
than  shown  toward  the  bottom,  thus  increasing  the 
surface  that  the  concrete  rests  on.  The  weight  of  the 
foundation  is  considered  sufficient  allowing  about  5 
cubic  feet  per  I.  H.  P.  for  engines  under  50  H.  P.  for 
concrete.  For  engines  over  50  I.  H.  P.  the  foundation 
can  be  reduced  per  I.  H.  P.  If  the  foundation  is  built 
of  brickwork,  its  dimensions  should  be  somewhat 
greater  than  those  given  for  concrete.  The  ingredients 
of  the  best  concrete  are  broken  stone,  Portland  cement 
and  sharp  sand.  The  fuel  tank  placed  underground 
surrounded  with  concrete  and  installed. in  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  the  fire  underwriters  is  shown 
at  Fig.  560.  The  fuel  supply  pipe  connections  and  fuel 
supply  pump  are  also  shown  as  required  by  their 
regulations. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


IJ7HS-. 


•XNVUO  JO  'TO 


OIL    ENGINES   DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  1 15 

When  driving  by  belt  the  distance  between  the  cen- 
tres of  the  dynamo  and  the  engine-shafts  is  an  im- 
portant feature.  Where  space  is  restricted  and  it  be- 
comes essential  that  the  dynamo  be  placed  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  engine1,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  a  link 
leather  belt,  allowed  to  run  quite  loose,  the  part  of  the 
belt  in  tension  being  underneath,  the  loose  part  being 
on  top,  so  that  the  arc  of  contact  made  on  the  smaller 
pulley  of  the  dynamo  is  as  great  as  possible.  This 
arrangement  with  loose  belt  lessens  the  friction  on  the 
bearings,  which"  would  be  occasioned  if  the  belt  were 
made  tight,  as  required  at  short  centres  with  ordinary 
leather  belt.  When  using  link  leather  belt,  the  distance 
between  the  centres  should  be  with  the  usual  standard 
size  of  fly-wheels  2  to  2.5  diameters  of  the  engine  fly- 
wheels— that  is,  the  distance  should  not  be  less  than  7 
ft.  for  wheels  of  3'  6"  diameter  and  not  greater 
than  15  ft.  for  wheels  of  6  ft.  diameter.  Where  or- 
dinary leather  belt  is  used  instead  of  link  belt,  this  dis- 
tance should  be  increased  to  3  diameters  of  fly-wheel, 
but  in  any  case  this  dimension  should  not  exceed  18 
ft.  for  driving  wheels  6  ft.  in  diameter.  To  obtain 
absolutely  steady  light,  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to 
place  a  balance-wheel  on  the  armature  shaft  of  the  dy- 
namo. This  wheel  if  used  should  weigh  about  15 
Ibs.  per  K.  W.  of  dynamo,  and  be  of  such  diameter 
that  at  the  maximum  speed  of  dynamo  its  peripheral 
speed  will  not  exceed  6000  ft.  per  minute.  This 
wheel  must  be  accurately  balanced,  and  is  usually  cast 
in  one  piece  with  pulley,  as  .shown  in  Fig.  57.  The 


OIL    ENGINES. 


necessary  width  of  belt  to  transmit  the  H.  P.  may  be 
calculated  as  follows : 


H.  P.=- 


800 


H.  P.  =  the  actual  horse-power. 

V    =  velocity  of  belt  in  feet  per  minute. 
w     =  width  of  belt  in  inches. 


FIG.  57- 


The  maximum  number  of  incandescent  lights  avail- 
able from  the  dynamo  per  brake  or  actual  H.  P.  of 
engine  varies  according  to  the  efficiency  of  the  dynamo, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  means  of  transmission  as  well 
as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  electrical  installation.  Lack  of 


OIL   ENGINES   DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  I  \J 

power  as  recorded  by  the  electrical  instruments  is  not 
necessarily  due  only  to  defects  of  the  engine,  as  leak- 
age of  power  may  occur  in  various  ways,  as  above 
stated.  Usually  ten  16  candle-power  lights  per  Brake 
H.  P.  are  calculated  as  being  a  fair  load  for  the  engine. 
With  arc  lamps  of  2000  candle-power,  the  B.  H.  P.  of 
engine  for  each  lamp  required  is  approximately  .75.  It 
is  advisable  to  have  spare  power  with  an.  explosive 
engine  above  that  required  to  run  all  the  lights.  Losses 
of  power  should  be  allowed  for  in  the  belt,  which  vary 
from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

The  regulation  of  explosive  engines  for  electric 
lighting  must  necessarily  be  such  that  there  is  no 
flicker  in  the  incandescent  lights.  A  speed  variation  of 
2  per  cent,  is  now  guaranteed  with  several  oil  engines. 
This  regulation  gives  a  very  good  light  and  equals  that 
developed  with  many  steam  engines. 

When  space  is  not  available  to  permit  the  use  of  belt 
transmission,  the  dynamo  is  connected  directly  on  to 
the  shaft  of  the  engine,  as  in  Figs.  58  and  580.  The 
coupling  between  engine-shaft  and  dynamo  is  usually 
flexible  to  allow  of  dynamo  bearings  and  the  engine- 
shaft  bearings  remaining  in  alignment  when  they  be- 
come worn.  In  direct-connected  plants  the  loss  due  to 
the  belt  transmission  is  avoided,  and  a  saving  is  thus 
effected;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first  cost  of  the 
dynamo  is  very  much  greater,  running,  as  it  does,  at  a 
slower  speed  than  the  belt-driven  machine,  and  there- 
fore is  of  larger  dimensions,  and  consequently  more 
costly. 

Fig.  58  illustrates  a  Hornsby-Akroyd  engine  of  the 


OIL   ENGINES    DRIVING   DYNAMOS  IIQ 

twin  cylinder  horizontal  type  coupled  direct  to  the 
generator.  The  illustration  shows  the  engines  placed 
each  side  of  the  generator  with  two  flywheels  and  con- 
nected by  coupling  forged  on  the  shaft.  An  arrange- 
ment preferred  is  the  two  engines  placed  side  by  side 
with  one  heavy  flywheel,  the  generator  is  coupled  to 
the  engine  shaft  and  placed  on  one  side.  Where  this 
outfit  has  been  used  for  power  purposes  the  timing  of 
the  air  inlet  and  exhaust  cams  has  been  such  that  the 
explosions  have  been  simultaneous  in  each  cylinder. 
In  this  way  the  strain  on  the  generator  shaft  has  been 
reduced. 

Fig.  580  illustrates  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  horizontal 
type  of  engine  directly  connected  to  dynamo  through 
flexible  coupling.  This  engine,  being  of  the  two-cycle 
type,  receives  an  impulse  at  each  revolution  of  the 
crank-shaft,  and  it  runs  very  regularly  and  at  a  high 
rotative  speed. 

The  method  of  working  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine 
is  fully  described  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  fly-wheels  of  explosive  engines  intended  for 
driving  dynamos  are  usually  made  heavier  than  when 
the  engines  are  required  for  other  purposes.  (See 
Chapter  II.) 

Notwithstanding  the  special  design  of  engines  for 
electric-lighting  purposes  and  apparent  correct  adjust- 
ment of  the  governing  mechanism,  the  lights  may 
sometimes  be  seen  to  flicker.  Flickering  in  the  incan- 
descent lights  can  be  easily  located  by  close  inspection 
of  the  engine  and  dynamo,  and  may  be  due  either 
to  the  fly-wheels,  the  governor,  the  belt,  or  the  dynamo 
itself.  To  precisely  locate  this  defect  and  remedy  it, 


120 


OIL    ENGINES 


OIL   ENGINES   DRIVING   DYNAMOS.  121 

notice  the  lamps  carefully.  If  the  variations  in  the 
light  are  due  to  want  of  fly-wheel  momentum,  s"uch 
variations  will  be  seen  to  coincide  with  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  engine.  Again,  if  the  variation  in 
the  lights  is  only  periodical,  then  this  defect  should  be 
remedied  by  adjustment  of  the  governor.  Examine 
carefully  the  governing  mechanism  of  the  engine.  If 
the  variation  is  caused  by  the  governor  acting  too 
slowly,  then  adjust  so  as  to  cause  more  rapid  contact 
with  the  valve  or  other  controlling  mechanism. 

The  cause  of  the  trouble  may  not  be,  as  already  sug- 
gested, in  the  fly-wheel  momentum  or  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  governor,  but  in  the  belt,  which  is  fre- 
quently the  sole  cause  of  unsatisfactory  lighting.  The 
engine  and  dynamo  pulleys  over  which  the  belt  runs 
must  be  exactly  in  line  with  each  other.  The  belt 
should  be  endless,  or  if  jointed  such  joints  should  be 
very  carefully  made.  A  thick,  uneven  joint  in  the  belt 
will  cause  a  flicker  in  the  lights  each  time  it  passes  over 
the  dynamo  pulley.  The  belt  should  be  allowed  to  run 
as  loose  as  possible.  The  writer  has  seen  belts  running 
quite  slack  and  most  satisfactorily  when  the  pulleys 
have  been  covered  with  specially  prepared  pulley-cover- 
ing material.  In  some  instances  in  the  dynamo  itself 
may  be  found  the  cause  of  the  variation  in  the  voltage. 
If  the  commutator  becomes  unevenly  worn,  or  if  the 
brushes  are  not  properly  adjusted,  unsteady  lights  will 
result,  and  then  the  commutator  should  be  made  of  even 
surface  and  the  brushes  correctly  adjusted. 

Oil  engines  can  be  stopped  if  desired  by  pressing 
button  in  the  dwelling-house,  an  attachment  being 


122  OIL   ENGINES. 

added  to  some  engines  which  automatically  turns  the 
stopping  handle.  This  is  an  advantage  where  the  light 
is  required  late  at  night,  and  allows  the  attendant  to 
leave  the  engine  early,  at  the  same  time  providing 
requisite  illumination  as  long  as  required. 

AIR  SUCTION. — The  noise  created  by  the  air  being 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  has,  in  some  cases,  to  be 
silenced.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  connecting  the 
air-inlet  pipe  to  wooden  box  containing  space  at  least 
five  times  as  great  as  the  volume  of  the  cylinder — the 
sides  of  the  box  having  holes  which  are  lined  with  rub- 
ber. The  total  area  of  all  these  small  inlet  air  holes 
should  be  at  least  three  times  the  area  of  the  air-inlet 
pipe  to  the  engine. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OIL    ENGINES    CONNECTED    TO    AIR-COM- 
PRESSORS,   PUMPS,    ETC. 

THE  use  of  compressed  air  is  now  being  extensively 
applied  as  a  means  of  power  transmission,  and  it  is 
coming  more  and  more  into  favor  in  this  connection 
also  for  actuating  pneumatic  tools,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses too  numerous  to  mention.  Many  advantages  are 
claimed  for  the  combination  of  explosive  engines  con- 
nected to  air-compressors  as  a  motive  power. 

Skilled  attention  is  not  necessary  at  all  times.  There 
are  practically  no  standby  losses,  and  the  outfit  can  be 
easily  transported.  A  small  size  compressor  is  shown 
in  section  at  Fig.  590  made  by  the  Bury  Mfg.  Co.,  Erie, 
Pa.  The  normal  speed  of  these  compressors  being  con- 
siderably less  than. the  normal  speed  of  oil  engines,  they 
are  operated  by  gearing  or  by  belt  from  the  engine. 

Fig.  60  shows  an  oil  engine  geared  to  air-compressor 
of  the  ordinary  double-acting  type.  In  this  outfit  the 
power  necessary  to  actuate  the  compressor  is  trans- 
mitted by  gearing  from  the  engine  crank-shaft  to  the 
compressor-shaft,  which  then  revolves  at  a  slower 
speed  than  the  engine-shaft.  This  arrangement  is  con- 


FIG.  59 


(To  face  p.  124.) 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    125 

sidered  advantageous,  because  of  the  slower  motion 
of  the  air-compressor  valves  as  compared  with  the 
direct-connected  outfit.  In  each  of  the  illustrations  the 
air-compressor  cylinder  is  water-jacketed,  the  circulat- 
ing water  being  supplied  by  the  small  pump  actuated 
from  the  engine  cam-shaft,  the  water  being  first  de- 
livered to  the  compressor  cylinder,  and  thence  to  the 
oil  engine  cylinder.  This  outfit  consists  of  13  B.  H.  P. 
oil  engine  and  "Ingersoll-Sergeant"  double  acting  air- 
compressor  having  cylinder  8"  diameter  and  8" 
stroke,  and  running  at  150  revolutions  per  minute,  de- 
livering 70  cubic  ft.  of  free  air  per  minute  at  70  to  80 
Ibs.  pressure. 

The  horse-power  required  to  operate  a  compressor 
delivering  an  actual  amount  of  air  at  a  given  pressure 
can  be  found  from  the  diagram  at  Fig.  6oc.  The  theo- 
retical horse-power  required  to  compress  loo  cubic 
feet,  delivered  at  various  pressures  up  to  125  Ibs.  can 
be  taken  directly  from  the  curves  on  this  diagram. 

In  order  to  find  the  actual  horse-power,  the  indicated 
efficiency  and  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  com- 
pressor should  be  known.  The  indicated  efficiency  is 
the  relation  of  the  theoretical  working  diagram  to  the 
real  indicated  power.  In  the  curve  (Fig.  6ia),  the 
actual  air  delivered  is  given.  Approximately  10% 
should  be  added  to  allow  for  losses  due  to  heating  of 
the  air,  valve  resistance  and  friction. 

Fig.  59  shows  a  250  H.  P.  oil  engine  of  the  horizontal 
type  direct  connected  to  a  two-stage  air  compressor 
in  which  the  low  pressure  cylinder  is  2o|  inches  diame- 
ter, and  the  high  pressure  cylinder  13^  inches,  and  is 
designed  to  furnish  1,275  cubic  feet  at  90  Ibs.  pressure 
per  minute. 


126 


OIL    ENGINES. 


— 

M  1-1  a  a  co 

W,8»,err8rr^ 

•i&imii 

•pajoo^  }o£i 
jiy    -Xjuo  uo;ssaaduio3 
Suunp    ajnssaa,j     UBaj\; 

^-0    «000    OCO^O 

MU«^«^d,d 

•ajniB-iaduiaj,  }ut?isuo3 
jiy    'Xiao  uoissaaduzoQ 
Suijmp    aanssajj     ueaj^ 

0    ?  0  Tfc»"  ?S    3"  K  M    §^0 

M  M  a  'I-  »n  r^oo  o 

•ajjoajs  -isd  ajnssaaj  UBBJ^ 

KM          ^         ^M          M 

M     N     CO   ^00     M     -t   1^.    O 

:rT^=D3K 

Q    Ooo   r^  xri  coo   COO   xri  co 

IH    W    CO-3-l^-O    N    'tO 

„«  w  ,,,/T^ 

C>  O^co  oo  oo  O  O  vn  Tt  rt 

-uo3  ^B  jty  qiiAV  atunioA 

O   O   OOO   w>\ncoOoo 

•saaaqdsounv  UI  ajnssajcj 

oo  o  't  e» 

•aanssajj  a^niosqy 

4xAo  r^-co  c>4o4c>rf 

•ajnssajj  sSnvQ 

M     M     «    C.     «( 

OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS. 


u->  O   "">  O   m  O   ""»  O   w>  O   **">  O   m  O   in  O   w> 
M  w   I-H    ON  r>.  m  o  \r>  O   N  r^-C^w  mO   r-cc 



r-  t^  w   W    Ooo   -tmoci'ft"^        MOOcoc^MWinM         t-<NM' 
-t-  r-^   ?f  r^  M   ?**•  «   *l-co   M   -f  co    M   u^cc    M  moo   w  c 

co*^-^ininoo  r-»r-*oocQ   0^00  O  »H  t-n 


128 


OIL   ENGINES. 


The  outfit  runs  at  150  R.  P.  M.  The  crank-shafts  of 
the  engine  are  coupled  to  the  crank-shaft  of  the  air 
compressor  by  means  of  couplings  forged  on  the  end 
of  the  shafts.  In  this  case  the  explosions  in  the  engine 
are  timed  to  take  place  simultaneously. 

Fig.  6ob  shows  a  vertical  Mietz  &  Weiss  oil  engine 
direct  connected  to  a  single  acting  high  speed  air  com- 
pressor. The  engine  operates  on  the  two-cycle  plan, 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    I2Q 


similar  to  that  explained  on  page  178.  It  runs  at  420 
R.  P.  M.  Diameter  of  the  air-compressor  cylinder  is 
8"  and  the  stroke  8".  The  piston  displacement  being 
approximately  97  cubic  feet  of  free  air  per  minute. 

Another  direct  connected  high  speed  type  of  air  com- 
pressor is  that  shown  at  Fig.  6oa,  consisting  of  a  De  La 
Vergne  Type  S  oil  engine  of  the  two-cycle,  vertical 
type  direct  connected  to  a  single  acting  compressor  ac- 
tuated directly  from  the  crank-shaft  of  the  engine  and 
running  at  the  same  speed,  namely,  450  to  500  R.  P.  M. 
The  valves  of  this  compressor  are  of  special  design, 
being  simply  a  sheet-steel  plate  specially  adapted  for 
running  at  this  high  rate  of  speed.  These  outfits  are 
made  up  to  25  H.  P. 

TABLE  III. — EFFICIENCIES  OF  AIR-COMPRESSORS  AT 
DIFFERENT  ALTITUDES. 


Barometric,  Pressure. 

fill 

«M^ 

°-3§ 

Decreased 

feet.  C' 

Inches, 
Mercury. 

Pounds  Per 
Square  Inch. 

jl 
>KO 

88" 

•Safe 
'->& 

Required, 
Per  Cent 

O 

30.00 

14-75 

IOO. 

o. 

0. 

1000 

28.88 

14.20 

97- 

3- 

1.8 

20OO 

27.80 

13.67 

93- 

7- 

3-5 

3000 

26.76 

13-16 

90. 

10. 

•    5-2 

400O 

25.76 

12.67 

87. 

13- 

6.9 

5000 

24-79 

1  2.  2O 

84. 

1  6. 

8-5 

600O 

23.86 

"•73 

81. 

19. 

10.  1 

7OOO 

22.97 

11.30 

78. 

22. 

u.6 

8OOO 

22.11 

10.87 

76. 

24. 

I3-I 

QOOO 

21.29 

10.46 

73- 

27- 

14.6 

IOOOO 

20.49 

10.07 

70. 

30- 

16.1 

IIOOO 

19.72 

9.70 

68. 

32- 

17.6 

I2OOO 

18.98 

9-34 

65- 

35- 

19.1 

I3OOO 

18.27 

8.98 

63- 

37- 

20.  6 

I4OOO 

17-59 

8.65 

60. 

40. 

22.1 

15000 

16.93 

8.32 

58. 

42. 

23-5 

1 3o 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  efficiency  of  an  air  compressor  is  reduced  when 
working  at  high  altitudes.  Table  III.  gives  such  de- 
preciation in  efficiency  at  the  different  altitudes. 


FIG.  6 1 a. 

OIL  PUMPING  STATIONS 
Fig.  6ib  shows  the  oil  engine  connected  by  friction 
coupling  directly  with  a  Goulds  triplex  power  pump. 
The  illustration  shows  a  complete  pumping  station 
used  in  the  oil  fields  for  transporting  crude  oil  from  the 
oil  fields  to  the  oil  refinery.  Pressures  as  high  as  900 
to  1,000  Ibs.  are  frequently  used  in  this  work  and  it  is 
customary  for  the  engines  to  operate  24  hours  per  day 
continuously.  The  illustration  shows  several  outfits, 
one  of  which  is  at  all  times  held  in  reserve.  This  illus- 
tration is  given  to  show  one  of  the  many  applications  of 
the  oil  engine  used  in  connection  with  a  pump.  In  these 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    131 

cases,  the  engine  operates  on  crude  oil,  which  is  passed 
through  the  pipe  line  and  effects  great  economy  as 
compared  with  the  steam  plant.  The  oil  engine  is  now 
very  largely  used  for  this  purpose. 

OIL-ENGINE  PUMPING  PLANTS. — Fig.  61  represents 
an  oil-engine  pumping  plant  as  installed  for  supplying 


FIG.  62. 


town  or  village  water-supply.  This  outfit  consists  of 
13  H.  P.  oil  engine  connected  by  friction-clutch  to  the 
shaft  of  a  triplex  pump  having  cylinders  6\"  diameter 
and  8"  stroke. 

The  amount  of  water  delivered  by  this  outfit  is  ap- 
proximately 165  gallons  per  minute,  with  total  aver- 
age lift  of  195  ft.  The  cost  of  fuel  for  running  is 


132  OIL    ENGINES. 

about  13  cents  per  hour.  Practically,  no  attention  is 
required  beyond  starting  the  engine  and  occasional  lu- 
brication. 

Fig.  62  shows  a  small  outfit  suitable  for  supplying 
water  to  a  country-house,  and  consists  of  i|  H.  P. 
engine  and  pump  capable  of  delivering  1200  gallons  of 
water  with  150  ft.  total  lift. 

To  calculate  the  theoretical  H.  P.  required  to  raise  a 


FIG.  63. 

given  amount  of  water,  multiply  the  number  of  gallons 
to  be  delivered  per  minute  by  8.3,  which  gives  the 
weight;  again,  multiply  by  the  total  required  lift  in 
feet,  and  divide  the  result  by  33,000,  thus : 

Number  of  gallons  X  8.3  X  height  of  lift 

H.  P.  — 

33,000 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    133 

Example:  165  gallons  195  feet  lift 
165  X  8.3  X  195 


33,000 
=  8  H.  P.  actually  required  to  lift  water. 

The  friction  of  the  moving  parts  of  the  pump  has  to 
be  overcome,  and  for  this  and  other  losses  allowance 
is  usually  made  by  figuring  the  efficiency  of  the  pump 
(in  the  smaller  size)  at  60  per  cent,  to  70  per  cent. 


OIL    ENGINES    DRIVING    ICE    AND    REFRIGERATING 
MACHINES. 

Oil  engines  are  now  being  used  in  connection  with 
small  ice  and  refrigerating  machines. 

Fig.  63  represents  a  plant  of  this  description,  con- 
sisting of  an  oil  engine  belted  direct  to  a  refrigerating 
machine  used  in  this  instance  for  cooling  a  butcher's 
cold-storage  box. 

The  refrigerating  machines  are  rated  according  to 
the  amount  of  ice  they  are  assumed  to  displace.  A 
one-ton  machine  is  one  which  will  effect  the  same 
cooling  in  twenty-four  hours  which  a  ton  of  ice  would 
do  in  melting.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  refrigerat- 
ing machine  is  that  while  the  ice  can  only  produce  a 
temperature  of  35°  Fahr.  and  upward,  the  refrigerat- 
ing machine  can  be  operated  to  produce  any  tempera- 
ture which  may  be  desired. 

In  the  process  of  refrigeration,  the  work  which  the 


134  OIL    ENGINES. 

oil  engine  has  to  do  is  to  drive  a  compressor,  and  there- 
fore the  same  principles  may  be  applied  to  this  machine 
as  to  the  ordinary  air-compressor  already  discussed. 
We  need  only  to  know  how  much  gas  has  to  be  com- 
pressed and  the  conditions  upon  which  to  base  the  cal- 
culation for  the  work  done  in  the  compressor.  It  is 
the  practice  of  refrigerating-machine  makers  to  allow 
about  4.5  cubic  ft.  displacement  per  ton  of  refrigera- 
tion— that  is  to  say,  a  lO-ton  machine  is  one  having 
capacity  of  pumping  45  cubic  ft.  of  gas  per  minute. 

In  the  case  of  the  ordinary  compressor,  we  have  only 
to  consider  the  final  pressure,  since  the  initial  pressure 
is  always  that  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  case  of  the 
refrigerating  machine,  however,  this  is  not  the  case, 
for  the  gas  being  circulated  in  a  closed  circuit  may 
have  not  only  a  varying  final  pressure,  but  also  a  vary- 
ing suction  pressure.  These  pressures  depend  upon 
the  temperatures  obtaining  in  the  cold  room  and  in 
the  condenser  in  a  manner  which  it  is  not  necessary 
to  consider  in  detail.  The  initial  pressure  and  the  final 
pressure  being  known,  the  mean  pressure  may  be  cal- 
culated in  the  ordinary  way. 

To  facilitate  this  calculation,  table  No.  IV.  may  be 
consulted.  The  vertical  left-hand  column  gives  the 
initial  pressure  corresponding  to  the  temperatures 
named  in  the  second  column,  these  being  the  tempera- 
tures inside  the  cooling  pipes.  The  top  horizontal  line 
gives  the  pressure  corresponding  to  the  temperatures 
in  the  second  horizontal  line.  These  temperatures  are 
those  obtaining  in  the  condenser. 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    135 


00 

0 

2 

CNOOONOO^-M        r^.OOM        ONONN 
ONOO        OOO^o        ONWON       NMIO 
O      ^"   00         W      lO     O^        t^     VO     OO         IH      CO    T^ 
VOVOVO         t^t^t^OOOOOO         ONONONi 

o 

°0 

rJ-O-^t-        MNW         ONONOO       OOOOOO 

w 

5 

•S,  £  £>  S  2.  1C  *£  cS  <?  <^  »o  « 

rature. 

* 

0 

s 

MVO\O        CONN        r)-O\0       oor^w 

vo  oo'    N      to  06    M      TJ-  \d  oo'      ON  d    IH 

a 

S 

o 

OOOOO        XOOVO       <O>-iro      t-vooo 
OON         NONOOOOON         MiON 

a 

f^vOON       N      to    t-       ONMro       Tf-Tfrl- 

lOiotO^ONOVO       vot^t^-       t^t^. 

c 

rt 

a 

0 

J?  5-  IT  s;^-vS-  ^o^^-^^ 

I 

- 

00 

JoS^      ^vSv?      v^vS"^      SSv^ 

9 

t--'^-ON       OOOOO        rOPOtO       >OT}-\O 

I 

§ 

oo'      O      rO       10    t^-     O\       M      pj      M'        pi      pj      O 

V 

•a 

c 

j> 

V5 

^g,^     t"^     ^t?     o^°. 

6 

TJ-      ^-     IT)        ""O     U">     °LO        IO     tO     TLO        *LO     ^-O     to 

« 

oo 

M     00     OO         to  *O      *^        O      *"*»     O         Tt*     M     *O 

** 

IX 

Tj-     T}-     ^-        ^"     to     IO        to    to    to        to     "^t"     "^ 

S5 

0 

VOWO       VO      Tj-    rj-       T^-0000       VOVON 

M 

N<? 

MN-rJ-        tovOt^COt^t^        tOfOO 

<U 

£    J 

.    -c    : 

2  g  « 

1 
1 
| 

ooo         ooo         ooo         ooo 

oi«o     mow    o^g     !?SsI5 
r^1^*"                     w   •*   ™     ™  »Q  »*3 

[111 

Refrigera 
sure 

T^^r^o 

[ 

3 

4 

^*»t.naiM 

136  OIL   ENGINES. 

The  mean  pressure  corresponding  to  any  two  known 
conditions  may  therefore  be  taken  from  the  table;  for 
example,  with  a  suction  pressure  of  28  and  a  condenser 
pressure  of  153,  the  mean  pressure  is  67.02  pounds. 
The  work  required  to  produce  a  ton  of  refrigeration, 
therefore,  would  be 


33>ooo 
in  which 

P  =  67.02  pounds. 

L  =  4.5  feet. 

A  =  144  square  inches  =  I  sq.  ft. 


Substituting  these  values,  the  horse-power  is  1.32. 
No  allowance  is  here  made  for  friction,  and  in  small 
refrigerating  machines  this  should  be  extremely  liberal. 

Moreover,  on  reference  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  machine  may  happen  to  be  called  upon  to  work 
under  conditions  where  the  mean  pressure  will  be  very 
much  increased  ;  such,  for  example,  when  the  back 
pressure  is  51  Ibs.  and  the  high  pressure  is  218  Ibs. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  mean  pressure  will 
be  94.52  instead  of  67.02.  For  these  reasons  it  is  not 
safe  to  provide  for  a  refrigerating  machine  of  small 
dimensions  a  power  much  less  than  about  3  H.  P.  per 
ton  of  refrigeration.  Under  ordinary  conditions  of 
running,  less  than  this,  and  frequently  only  one-half  of 
this  will  be  required,  but  provision  should  be  made  for 
taking  care  of  extreme  conditions. 


OIL  ENGINES  CONNECTED  TO  AIR-COMPRESSORS.    137 

FRICTION-CLUTCHES. — Where  engines  of  10  H.  P. 
or  over  are  installed,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a 
friction-clutch  pulley  added.  This  can  be  attached 
either  to  the  engine  crank-shaft  or  to  the  intermediate 
or  main  shaft.  Fast-and-loose  pulleys  are  sometimes 
substituted  for  the  friction-clutch. 

With  either  friction-clutch  or  fast-and-loose  pulleys 
the  advantages  gained  are,  first,  the  ease  with  which 
the  engine  can  be  started,  the  loose  or  friction- 
clutch  pulley  only  instead  of  the  whole  shaft  has  to  be 
turned  when  the  plant  is  started,  and,  secondly,  in  case 
of  accident  or  other  emergency  necessitating  the  quick 
cessation  of  the  revolving  machinery,  this  can  be  ac- 
complished at  once  by  simply  moving  over  the  handle 
of  the  friction-clutch  and  pulley.  Otherwise  without 
the  clutch  the  heavy  fly-wheels  of  the  engine  remain 
revolving  for  a  minute  or  so  after  the  fuel  of  the  engine 
is  turned  off,  and  being  directly  connected  by  belt  to 
the  shafting  and  machinery,  the  whole  plant  is  in  mo- 
tion while  the  momentum  of  the  fly-wheels  exists. 

Friction-clutches  are  made  of  various  designs  by  sev- 
eral manufacturers.  That  shown  in  Fig.  630,  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  explosive  engines.  It  consists  of  a 
carrier  which  bolts  to  the  regular  bosses  on  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  engine,  this  carrier  acting  as  the  journal 
of  the  pulley,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  clutch  is  en- 
closed in  the  same.  The  clutch  has  a  side  grip.  The 
pulley,  otherwise  loose,  is  thrown  into  connection  with 
the  engine  fly-wheel  by  simply  pushing  in  a  spindle  on 
which  a  hand-wheel  revolves  loosely.  Two  rollers  are 
mounted  on  the  end  of  the  spindle,  and  bearing  on 


130  OIL    ENGINES. 

these  rollers  are  the  levers  which  in  turn  are  pivoted  to 
the  gripping  plate  and  a  lug  on  the  levers  abuts  against 
the  adjusting  screw.  The  inward  movement  of  the 
spindle  forces  these  levers  apart  and  draws  the  grip- 
ping plate  in,  thus  gripping  the  pulley  in  a  circular  vise 


/ENGINE  FLY  WHEEL 


FIG.  630. 


between  the  flange  on  the  carrier  and  the  gripping 
plate.  To  release  the  clutch  the  spindle  is  pulled  out, 
and  thereby  the  strain  on  the  levers  is  removed,  thus 
allowing  the  pulley  to  run  loose.  This  clutch  is  known 
as  the  B  and  C  Friction  Clutch  Pulley. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING     OIL    EN- 
GINES. 

THE  attendant,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results 
from  an  engine,  should  first  fully  understand  the 
principle  by  which  the  engine  he  is  running  works 
and  the  conditions  which  it  -is  essential  should  ex- 
ist in  the  cylinder  to  procure  proper  explosion  and 
combustion.  These  conditions  are  practically  the 
same  in  all  types  of  oil  engines.  The  explosive  mixture 
consists  of  hydrocarbon  gas  and  atmospheric  air,  the 
gas  being  formed  from  kerosene  oil  previously  gasefied 
or  vaporized  and  properly  mixed  with  air  by  one  or 
other  of  the  different  methods,  as  described  in  Chap- 
ter I.  This  mixture  is  then  compressed  by  the  inward 
stroke  of  the  piston  before  ignition  with  the  two-cycle 
type  of  engine.  The  mixture  is  afterward  ignited  by 
hot  tube,  electricity,  heated  surfaces,  or  otherwise,  as 
also  described  in  Chapter  I.,  and  the  required  impulse 
is  then  obtained  at  the  piston.  If  for  any  reason  these 
conditions  are  not  existing,  proper  explosion  and  com- 
bustion will  not  follow.  The  several  reasons  which 
prevent  proper  explosions  being  obtained  are  very  fully 
described  in  Chapter  III.  on  "  Testing." 


I4O  OIL    ENGINES. 

The  conditions  necessary  to  insure  proper  working 
are  as  follows : 

(a)  Oil    supply    to    the    vaporizer    or    combustion 
chamber    delivered  at  the  correct    time,  and  in  such 
quantity  as  to  form  proper  explosive  mixture.     Effi- 
cient supply  of  air. 

(b)  Sufficient  pressure  in  the  cylinder  by  compres- 
sion before  ignition. 

(c)  Correct  ignition  of  the  gases,  the  ignition  tak- 
ing place  at  the  proper  time. 

CYLINDER  LUBRICATING  OIL. — It  is  essential  that  a 
suitable  lubricating  oil  be  used  for  the  piston.  The 
great  heat  evolved  in  the  cylinders  of  explosive  engines 
renders  this  essential.  • 

The  lubricating  oil  recommended  for  this  purpose  is 
a  light  mineral  oil  having  a  flash  point  of  not  less  than 
360°  Fahr.  and  fire  test  420°  Fahr.  Gravity  test  25.8, 
and  having  a  viscosity  of  175  (Saybold  test).  If  waste- 
oil  filter  is  used,  the  oil  filtered  must  not  be  employed 
for  lubricating  the  piston  at  any  time. 

The  following  are  instructions  as  formulated  by  the 
makers  of  the  different  engines,  each  of  the  four  types 
of  vaporizers  being  here  represented,  as  well  as  the 
different  kinds  of  igniting  devices. 


HORNSBY-AKROYD  TYPE. 

The  method  of  working  is  explained  in  Chap- 
ter IX.,  giving  general  description  of  these  engines. 
The  oil-tank  in  the  base  of  the  engine  should  be  fillec1 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       14! 

and  the  oil  pumped  up  by  hand  until  it  passes  the  over- 
flow pipe.  The  water-tanks  if  used  must  also  be  filled 
to  the  top  and  the  cylinder  water-jacket  also  be  full 
of  water  before  starting. 

PREPARING  TO  START  THE  ENGINE. — On  those  en- 
gines in  which  the  vaporizer  is  partially  water-jack- 
eted, the  valve  on  the  inlet  water-pipe  should  be  closed 
before  commencing  to  heat  the  vaporizer  for  starting, 
and  opened,  or  partially  opened,  when  running. 

To  HEAT  THE  VAPORIZER. — A  coil  lamp  is  used  (see 
illustration,  Fig.  64)  for  this  purpose;  the  lamp  reser- 
voir should  be  nearly  filled  with  oil.  A  little  kerosene 
should  then  be  poured  into  the  cup  containing  asbestos 
wick  under  the  coil  and  lighted.  When  this  has  nearly 
burnt  out,  pump  up  the  reservoir  with  air  by  the  air- 
pump,  when  oil  vapor  will  issue  from  the  small  nipple, 
and  on  being  lighted  will  give  a  clear  flame.  When 
it  is  required  to  stop  the  lamp,  turn  the  little  thumb- 
screw on  the  reservoir-filling  nozzle  and  let  the  air  out, 
and  remove  the  lamp  from  the  bracket.  The  nipple  at 
any  time  can  be  cleaned  with  the  small  prickers  which 
are  supplied  for  this  purpose.  Should  the  U-tubes  get 
choked  up,  the  lower  one  can  be  gotten  at  by  unscrew- 
ing the  joint  just  below  it,  and  the  other  one  by  screw- 
ing out  the  nipple  from  which  the  oil  vapor  issues. 
The  heating  of  the  vaporizer  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  to  be  attended  to,  and  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  is  made  hot  enough  before  starting.  The  at- 
tendant must  see  that  the  lamp  is  burning  properly  for 
five  or  ten  minutes,  or  sometimes  a  little  longer,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  engine.  If,  however,  the 


142 


-OIL  ENGINES. 


lamp  is  burning  badly,  it  may  take  longer  to  get  the 
proper  heat.  It  is  most  important  that  the  lamp  should 
be  carefully  attended  to. 


FIG.  64. 

To  START  THE  ENGINE. — Place  the  starting  handle 
to  position  "Shut,"  and  work  the  pump-lever  up  and 
down  until  the  oil  is  seen  to  pass  the  overflow-valve. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL   ENGINES.       143 

Then  turn  the  handle  to  position  "  Open,"  work  the 
pump-lever  up  and  down  again,  one  or  two  strokes, 
then  give  the  fly-wheel  one  or  two  turns,  and  the  engine 
will  start  readily.  There  is  also  a  handle  upon  the 
cam-shaft,  which,  when  starting  the  engine,  must  be 
placed  in  the  position  marked  "  To  Start,"  and  imme- 
diately the  engine  has  gotten  up  speed  this  handle 
should  be  placed  in  position  marked  "  To  Work." 


FIG.  65. 


(See  Fig.  65.)  When  it  is  required  to  stop  the  engine, 
turn  the  starting  handle  to  the  position  marked  "  Shut." 
If  too  much  oil  is  pumped  into  vaporizer  before  start- 
ing it  will  be  difficult  to  start  up. 

OILING  ENGINE. — See  that  the -oil-cups  on  the  main 
crank-shaft  bearings  are  fitted  with  proper  wicks 
and  with  other  oil-cups  are  filled  with  oil.  Oil  the 


144 


OIL    EXGIXES. 


small  end  of  the  connecting-rod  which  is  inside  the  pis- 
ton, also  the  bearings  on  horizontal  shaft  and  the  skew- 
gearing,  the  rollers  at  the  ends  of  the  valve-levers  and 
their  pins,  and  the  pins  on  which  the  levers  rock,  the 
governor  spindle  and  joints,  the  bevel-wheels  which 
drive  same,  and  the  joints  that  connect  the  governor 


FIG.  66. 


to  the  small  relief-valve  on  the  vaporizer  valve-box. 
For  such  purposes,  none  but  the  best  engine  oil  should 
be  used. 

OIL-PUMP. — When  the  engine  is  working  at  its  full 
power  the  distance  between  the  two  round  flanges  A 
and  B  on  the  pump-plunger  should  be  such  that  the 
gauge  "  i"  will  just  fit  in  between  the  flanges.  (See 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       145 

Fig.  66.)  The  other  lengths  on  the  hand-gauge  marked 
"  2"  and  "  3"  are  useful  for  adjusting  the  pump  to 
economize  oil  when  running  on  a  medium  or  a  light 
load.  Do  not  screw  down  the  pump  packing  tight 
enough  to  interfere  with  the  free  working  of  the 
plunger. 

RUNNING  ENGINES  LIGHT  OR  NEARLY  So. — When 
engines  are  required  to  run  with  light  or  no  load,  it  is 
best  to  alter  the  stroke  of  the  pump  to  supply  only  suf- 
ficient oil  to  keep  the  engine  running  at  full  speed,  so 
that  the  governor  occasionally  reduces  the  oil.  The 
inlet  water-pipe  to  the  vaporizer-jacket  should  be 
closed  when  running  light  also. 

AIR-INLET  AND  EXHAUST  VALVES. — See  that  the 
air-inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  working  properly  and 
drop  onto  their  seats.  They  can  at  any  time,  if  re- 
quired, be  made  tight  by  grinding  in  with  a  little  flour 
of  emery  and  water.  The  set-screws  at  the  ends  of  the 
levers  that  open  these  valves  must  not  be  screwed  up 
so  high  that  the  valves  cannot  close ;  this  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  seeing  that  the  rollers  at  the  other  end  of 
the  levers  are  just  clear  of  the  cams  when  the  project- 
ing part  of  the  cams  is  not  touching  them.  (See  Fig. 
67.) 

VAPORIZER  VALVE-BOX.— In  this  box  there  are  two 
valves.  The  vertical  one  is  regulated  by  the  governor, 
and  when  the  engine  runs  too  fast  the  governor  pushes 
it  down,  thus  opening  it  and  allowing  some  oil  to  over- 
flow into  the  by-pass,  which  should  only  allow  oil  to 
pass  when  the  governor  presses  it  down,  or  when  the 
starting  handle  is  turned  to  "  Shut."  The  horizontal 


146  OIL   ENGINES. 

valve  in  this  box  is  a  back-pressure  valve,  and  should 
a  leakage  occur  it  may  be  discovered  by  slightly  open- 
ing the  overflow-valve  (by  pressing  it  down  with  the 
hand),  when,  if  there  is  a  leakage,  vapor  will  issue  from 
the  overflow-pipe,  and  in  that  case  the  valve  should  be 
examined,  and,  if  necessary,  be  taken  out  for  inspection 
and  ground  on  its  seat  with  a  little  emery  flour  and 
water.  If  the  horizontal  valve  and  sleeve  are  taken  out, 
care  should  be  taken,  in  replacing  them,  to  use  the 
same  thickness  of  jointing  material  as  before. 

OIL-PIPES. — The  pipe  from  the  pump  to  the  vapor- 
izer valve-box  has  a  gradual  rise  from  the  pump;  if 


FIG.  67. 

otherwise,  an  air-pocket  would  be  formed  in  which  air 
would  be  compressed  upon  each  stroke  of  the  pump, 
and  thus  allow  the  oil  to  enter  slowly  and  not  as  it 
should  do,  suddenly.  If  the  oil  gets  below  the  filter 
at  any  time,  work  the  pump  by  hand  a  few  minutes, 
holding  open  the  overflow-valve  in  the  vaporizing 
valve-box,  so  as  to  get  the  air  well  out  of  the  pipes. 
The  oil-filter  should  be  taken  out  and  cleaned  occa- 
sionally. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       147 

SPRAY  HOLES. — It  may  be  desirable  to  take  off  the 
vaporizer  valve-box  and  clean  the  little  hole  or  holes 
through  which  the  oil  issues.  The  reamers,  or  small 
wires  supplied,  are  not  for  increasing  the  size  of  the 
hole,  but  are  simply  for  cleaning  it  at  any  time. 

TESTING  OIL-PUMP. — See  that  the  pump  gets  its 
proper  oil  supply.  Disconnect  the  oil-supply  pipe 
union  attached  to  vaporizer  valve-box,  and  give  the 


FIG.  68. 

pump  two  or  three  strokes  so  as  to  pump  oil  up ;  then 
press  the  thumb  firmly  on  the  end  of  the  pipe,  as  shown 
in  illustration,  Fig.  68.  Pump  both  by  a  sudden 
jerk,  and  afterward  by  a  steady  pressure.  If  the 
plunger  yields  to  a  sudden  jerk  and  no  oil  has  gotten 
past  the  thumb  over  the  top  of  the  delivery-pipe,  then 
the  pump  or  the  pipes  contain  air.  If  the  plunger  does 
not  yield  to  a  sudden  jerk,  but  slowly  falls  under  a 
constant  pressure,  then  the  suction-valves  of  pump  are 


148  OIL  ENGINES. 

not  tight.  If  necessary,  the  valve-seats  can  be  renewed 
by  lightly  driving  the  cast-steel  ball  valves  onto  their 
seats  with  a  small  copper  punch.  If  it  is  required  to 
see  that  the  vaporizer  valve-box  is  in  order,  take  off  the 
vaporizer  valve-box  body  and  sleeve,  and  connect  them 
to  the  oil-supply  pipe  from  the  pump,  so  that  the  jet 
from  the  spraying  hole  can  be  directed  where  it  can  be 
seen.  Work  the  pump  by  hand,  when  the  jet  produced 
should  be  clear,  with  distinct  and  abrupt  pauses  be- 
tween each  delivery. 

THE  GOVERNOR  "  HUNTING." — This  may  be  caused 
by  the  joints  or  spindle  of  the  governor  becoming  bent, 
dirty,  or  sticky,  and  requiring  cleaning.  If  the  pump 
is  not  giving  a  regular  supply  of  oil,  it  may  sometimes 
cause  the  governor  to  hunt,  and  the  engine  would  run 
irregularly.  This  may  occur  when  the  engine  is  first 
started. 

THE  CROSSLEY  PATENT  TYPE. 

STARTING. — Heat  the  ignition-tube  by  means  of  the 
lamp  in  the  usual  way.  The  pressure  (about  60 
Ibs.)  necessary  to  raise  the  oil  to  the  lamp  in  this 
engine  is  taken  from  the  oil-tank,  the  air  pressure  be- 
fore starting  being  created  by  hand.  This  lamp  heats 
both  the  ignition-tube  to  a  good  red  heat  and  vaporizer 
blocks  to  less  heat  simultaneously.  The  necessary 
pressure  to  raise  the  oil  to  the  lamp  is  maintained  by 
the  pump  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft  when  the  en- 
gine is  running. 

PRIMING  CUP. — Fill  the  little  brass  priming  cup  on 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   RUNNING   OIL    ENGINES.       149 

the  top  of  the  vaporizer  cover  with  oil ;  open  the  valve 
and  let  the  oil  pass  through  into  the  vaporizer,  and 
then  shut  it  again.  Leave  the  wire  on  the  chain  out  of 
the  measurer.  Place  the  exhaust  roller  over  to  engage 
with  the  one-half  compression  cam ;  turn  the  fly-wheel 
until  the  crank-pin  is  about  one  inch  above  the  hori- 
zontal (both  valves  being  closed)  ;  open  the  stop- valve 
on  the  end  of  air-receiver ;  connect  up  the  oil-pump  by 
replacing  the  back-pin,  having  first  made  a  few  strokes 
with  the  hand-pump  until  the  oil-pipe  is  full  up  to  the 
measurer,  and  turn  the  quadrant  on  air-throttle  valve. 
The  engine  is  now  ready  to  start,  and  the  air  under  pres- 
sure from  receiver  may  be  let  in.  Loosen  the  screw  of 
starter  valve  ;  open  the  valve  by  means  of  the  loose  lever, 
and  hold  open  until  the  crank  has  just  passed  the  verti- 
cal position.  This  impulse  will  be  sufficient  to  turn  the 
fly-wheel  a  few  times,  during  which  the  piston  will  re- 
ceive regular  impulses.  The  exhaust  roller  may  then  be 
moved  off  the  one-half  compression,  when  full  speed 
will  be  steadily  attained. 

As  soon  as  convenient  the  screw  on  the  starting 
valve  may  be  unscrewed  to  allow  the  receiver  to  be- 
come recharged  again.  Should  the  engine  miss  explo- 
sions and  fail  to  attain  full  speed,  then  turn  the  lid  of 
measurer  partly  around  and  give  a  little  extra  supply 
of  oil  from  a  hand-can. 

AIR  SUPPLY. — At  full  speed  the  air-throttle  must  be 
opened  to  admit  more  air,  and  the  amount  must  be 
judged  as  to  whether  the  engine  ignites  its  charges  or 
not ;  too  much  air  will  cause  it  to  miss  fire — too  little 
air  causes  too  sharp  firing.  If  the  receiver  is  not 


150  OIL    ENGINES. 

charged,  and  it  is  required  to  start  engine  by  hand,  pull 
around  the  fly-wheel  and  get  up  as  much  speed  as  pos- 
sible before  putting  the  governor  blade  in  position  for 
engaging  with  the  governor  mechanism  which  opens 
the  gas-valve. 

VAPORIZER  BLOCK. — The  vaporizer  block  must  be 
well  heated  previous  to  starting;  otherwise  unvapor- 
ized  oil  will  be  carried  over  into  cylinder,  and  thus 
make  starting  uncertain  until  the  oil  has  all  passed 
away  in  evaporation.  This  may  also  cause  puffs  of 
vapor  to  rush  out  of  the  air  inlet  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  preceded  by  a  slight  explosion  in  the  vapor- 
izer block.  This  is  caused  by  late  ignition  in  cylinder, 
and  is  due  to  insufficient  vaporization  or  to  the  ignition- 
tube  not  being  hot  enough. 

VAPOR  VALVE. — If  small  puffs  of  vapor  issues 
out  of  the  air-pipe  of  the  chimney  every  other  revolu- 
tion while  the  engine  is  running,  it  is  a  proof  that  the 
vapor-valve  is  not  tight  and  must  be  cleaned  and 
ground  on  its  seating. 


CAMPBELL  OIL  ENGINE. 

STARTING. — Before  starting  the  engine,  see  that  the 
vaporizer  is  thoroughly  well  heated.  The  lamp  under 
the  vaporizer  should  burn  with  a  long,  bright  flame. 
When  the  vaporizer  is  sufficiently  heated,  throw  the 
governor  drop-lever  down,  thus  holding  the  exhaust- 
valve  open  and  relieving  the  compression.  While  this 
lever  is  held  down,  give  a  quarter  or  a  half  turn  of  the 


INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   RUNNING   OIL   ENGINES.       15! 

oil-cock ;  then  turn  the  fly-wheel  quickly  four  or  five 
revolutions,  and  allow  the  governor  drop-lever  to  be 
free.  It  will  swing  up  clear  of  the  exhaust-lever  and 
allow  a  charge  of  air  and  oil  to  be  driven  into  the  vapor- 
izer ;  the  engine  should  then  commence  working.  After 
the  engine  has  started,  turn  on  a  little  more  oil.  If  the 
oil  taken  into  the  vaporizer  should  not  explode  prop- 
erly, the  oil-cock  must  be  shut  and  opened  again 
quickly  to  allow  any  superfluous  oil  which  has  lodged 
in  the  vaporizer  to  be  drawn  out  of  it  and  vaporized. 
When  using  a  heavy  oil,  open  the  inlet-valve  to  allow 
more  air  to  flow  into  the  vaporizer. 

AIR  AND  OIL  SUPPLY. — Too  much  oil  passing  to  the 
vaporizer  will  cause  the  engine  to  miss  exploding  or  to 
explode  irregularly.  To  increase  the  air  supply, 
slacken  the  nuts  and  tension  of  air-inlet  valve;  by 
tightening  the  nuts  and  spring,  the  air  supply  is  de- 
creased. 

IGNITION-TUBE. — See  that  the  inside  of  the  ig- 
nition-tube is  kept  clear  from  oil,  and  keep  all  the 
valves  clean  and  the  governors  free  from  oil  and  dirt. 
When  the  engine  is  running  properly,  the  quantity  of 
oil  required  is  the  same,  whether  the  engine  is  running 
at  light  or  heavy  load. 

GOVERNORS. — The  governors  .  cut  out  some  of  the 
charges  at  light  loads  and  admit  more  charges  of  oil  at 
heavy  loads ;  each  charge,  however,  has  the  same  com- 
position of  vapor  and  air. 


152  OIL   ENGINES. 


THE    PRIESTMAN    TYPE. 

STARTING. — Open  the  drain-cock  in  the  vaporizer 
and  see  that  the  vaporizer  contains  no  oil ;  then  close 
the  cock.  Fill  the  oil-tank  to  the  small  upper-pet  cock, 
through  the  strainer  provided  and  screw  down  the  re- 
lief air-valve.  Lubricate  the  piston  wrist-pin  and  the 
crank-bearing  between  the  fly-wheels.  Drop  a  little  oil 
on  the  pump-piston  and  in  the  oil  holes  of  the  bearings 
of  the  large  gear-wheels,  the  eccentric,  and  all  other 
bearings.  Mineral  oil  must  not  be  used  on  the  governor 
oil  spindle  which  projects  into  the  spray-maker. 

ELECTRIC  IGNITER. — Raise  the  electric  fork-handle 
slightly.  This  is  done  in  order  to  produce  the  igniting 
spark  somewhat  later  for  starting  than  is  required  when 
the  engine  is  running  at  full  speed.  Turn  the  fly-wheels 
forward  until  the  small  knob  on  the  cam-shaft  has  just 
passed  the  contact  with  the  forks,  and  the  crank-pin  is 
then  just  clear  of  the  large  gear-wheel. 

HEATING  VAPORIZER. — Heat  the  vaporizer  until  the 
lower  part  of  the  feed-pipe  leading  to  the  inlet-valve  is 
too  hot  to  be  comfortably  held  by  hand.  When  the  va- 
porizer is  sufficiently  heated,  pump  up  6  or  8  Ibs. 
gauge  air  pressure  in  the  oil-tank  with  the  hand- 
pump  ;  open  the  oil-cock,  and  then  give  the  fly-wheels  a 
few  turns  with  the  starting  handle.  After  starting, 
move  the  electric  fork-handle  down  as  far  as  it  will  go. 

AIR  SUPPLY. — Set  the  air-relief  valves  for  giving 
about  8  to  10  Ibs.  air  pressure  in  the  oil-tank.  The  most 
suitable  running  pressure  in  a  given  locality  as  indi- 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   RUNNING   OIL   ENGINES.       153 

cated  by  the  gauge,  has  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 
With  the  air  pressure  too  low  or  too  high,  the  engine 
may  miss  explosions.  The  best  test  for  this  is  the  color 
of  the  ignition-plug.  When  the  pressure  is  right,  the 
plug  will  be  perfectly  clean.  If  the  plug  is  coated  with 
an  oily  black  substance,  it  is  a  sign  of  too  much  oil — 
that  is,  too  high  a  pressure.  To  stop  the  engine,  turn 
off  the  oil-cock.  When  stopped,  see  that  the  electric 
circuit  is  not  closed,  or  the  battery  energy  will  be 
wasted. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. — If  an  oil  engine  is  working 
properly  and  efficiently,  it  should  run  smoothly  to  the 
eye,  without  knocking  either  in  the  cylinder  or  bear- 
ings. The  piston  should  continue  to  work  clean  and  be 
well  lubricated,  without  any  apparent  carbon  or  gummy 
deposit.  The  exhaust  gases  at  the  outlet-pipe  should 
be  invisible  or  nearly  so.  The  explosion  should  be 
regular  and  should  be  only  reduced  in  pressure  when 
the  governor  is  reducing  the  explosive  charge  and  al- 
lowing only  part  or  none  of  the  charge  of  oil  to  enter 
the  cylinder. 

If  the  piston  is  black  and  gummy,  or  if  the  exhaust 
gases  are  like  smoke,  then  the  combustion  inside  the 
cylinder  is  recognized  as  being  incomplete,  and  the 
cause  should  at  once  be  ascertained  and  remedied. 

Bad  combustion  may  be  due  to  several  reasons,  but  is 
chiefly  caused  by  improper  mixture  of  air  and  gases  in 
Jhe  cylinder,  due  either  to  too  much  oil  entering  into 
the  vaporizer  or  to  insufficient  amount  of  air  being 
drawn  in  mixed  with  the  hydrocarbon  gas.  To  remedy 
this  defect,  examine  the  oil-inlet  valves  or  spraying  de- 


154  OIL   ENGINES. 

vice  carefully ;  also  see  that  air  and  exhaust  valves  are 
allowed  to  drop  freely  on  their  -seats,  and  that  springs 
or  other  mechanism  for  closing  the  valves  are  in  good 
shape.  Examine  piston-rings  and  ascertain  that  the 
rings  are  in  good  order  and  are  not  allowing  leakage 
of  air  to  pass  them. 

REGULATION  OF  SPEED. — To  alter  speed  of  the  en- 
gine with  the  hit-and-miss  type  of  governor,  the  spring 
is  strengthened  or  the  weight  reduced  to  increase 
speed.  The  weight  is  effectively  increased  by  moving 
it  toward  the  end  of  the  lever  away  from  the  fulcrum- 
pin,  and  vice  versa  to  reduce  speed.  The  strength  of 
the  spring  is  increased  by  tightening  down  the  thumb- 
screw nut.  With  the  Porter  type  of  governor  where 
counterbalance  with  movable  counterweight  is  pro- 
vided, the  speed  is  accelerated  by  increasing  the  sup- 
plementary weight,  or  by  placing  it  nearer  the  end  of 
the  lever.  If  the  centrifugal  force  of  the  revolv- 
ing weights  is  controlled  by  a  spring  instead  of 
weight,  then  the  speed  is  increased  by  strengthening 
the  spring. 

REVERSING  DIRECTION  OF  ROTATION. — In  order  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation  of  an  explosive  engine, 
it  is  necessary  to  change  the  relative  position  of  the 
cams  actuating  the  air  and  exhaust  valves  and  fuel 
supply  so  as  to  alter  the  periods  of  opening  and  closing 
of  these  valves,  and  also^to  change  the  period  of  fuel 
supply.  In  those  engines  in  which  one  cam  controls 
both  the  air-inlet  valve  and  the  fuel  supply,  the  shift- 
ing of  this  one  cam  alone  effects  the  change  necessary.* 
Where  the  fuel  supply  is  operated  separately,  the  cam 

*The  position  of  the  exhaust  cam  to  conform  to  the 
diagrams  in  Fig.  69  is  changed  by  alteration  of  the  gear- 
ing in  the  cam  shaft. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   RUNNING   OIL   ENGINES.       155 

or  eccentric  controlling  this  mechanism  must  be  moved 
correspondingly  with  the  air-valve  cam. 

The  following  diagrams  give  the  correct  positions 


FIG.  69. 


of  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  valves  when  the 
engine  is  running  in  each  direction,  and  the  cams  as  set 
for  each  case  are  shown  in  Fig.  69,  the  slot  for  key- 
way  in  the  air-inlet  cam  having  been  changed  only. 


156  OIL   ENGINES 

Where  the  air-inlet  valve  is  automatic  and  the  ex- 
haust valve  only  is  actuated  from  the  crank-shaft,  then, 
to  reverse  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  crank-shaft, 
the  position  of  the  exhaust-cam  only  is  changed,  corre- 
sponding to  the  position  as  marked  for  the  exhaust 
valve  in  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  69. 

The  lip  for  regulating  the  compression  when  start- 
ing the  engine  only,  which  is  usually  found  on  the  ex- 
haust cam,  will  require  adjustment  when  the  engine 
is  reversed  so  as  to  close  the  exhaust  valve  when  ap- 
proximately one-half  the  compression  stroke  has  been 
completed.  The  direction  of  rotation  for  which  the 
cams  of  the  engine  are  adjusted  can  be  ascertained  by 
turning  the  fly-wheel  until  the  exhaust  cam  commences 
to  open  the  exhaust  valve.  If  the  exhaust  valve  is 
opened  when  the  crank-pin  is  above  the  outward  cen- 
tre, as  shown  on  the  diagram  to  the  right  in  Fig.  69, 
then  the  direction  of  the  engine  is  "over"  or  away  from 
the  cylinder.  When  the  exhaust  valve  opens  below 
the  centre  of  the  crank-pin,  as  shown  in  diagram  to  the 
left  in  Fig.  69,  then  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  fly- 
wheel will  be  "under";  that  is,  the  upper  part  of  the 
fly-wheel  will  revolve  toward  the  cylinder. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
REPAIRS. 

OIL  ENGINES  as  made  by  most  of  the  makers  are  of 
substantial  construction,  with  ample  bearing  surfaces, 
and  consequently  require  few  repairs.  The  lower  initial 
pressures  of  explosion  evolved  in  oil  engines  as  com- 
pared with  some  gas  and  gasoline  engines  considerably 
lessens  the  severe  shock  to  the  piston  and  to  the  crank- 
shaft bearings  and  connecting-rod  bearings.  All 
machinery  requires  repairs  more  or  less  according  to 
the  care  that  it  receives,  and  oil  engines  are  not  an  ex- 
ception to  this  rule. 

THE  PISTON  should  be  drawn  out  occasionally ;  this 
is  done  by  uncoupling  the  connecting-rod  crank  end 
bearings  and  pulling  the  piston  out.  Chain-block  is 
sometimes  added  to  the  installation  of  large  engines, 
and  it  is  a  very  useful  adjunct  when  it  is  required  to  take 
out  the  piston  or  when  other  repairs  have  to  be  made. 
Where  no  arrangement  of  this  kind  is  available  when 
the  piston  is  to  be  taken  out,  wooden  packing  is  placed 
in  the  engine-bed,  on  which  the  piston  can  rest  as  it  is 
drawn  out.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  weight  of 
the  piston  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cylinder  does  not 
fall  on  the  piston-rings  or  they  may  thus  be  broken. 


158  OIL   ENGINES. 

With  the  vertical  type  of  engine  the  piston  is  taken  out 
from  the  top,  the  cylinder  head  and  other  parts  having 
been  removed. 

The  piston  should  be  washed  with  kerosene  and  well 
cleaned.  When  putting  piston  back  in  place,  each  ring 
should  be  put  separately  in  exact  position  in  its  groove 
as  regards  the  dowel-pin  in  piston  groove  before  the 
ring  enters  the  cylinder.  The  piston,  the  rings,  and  the 
inside  of  the  cylinder  must  all  be  carefully  cleaned  and 
well  lubricated  with  proper  oil  before  being  again  put 
in  place.  Where  the  rings  require  cleaning,  this  can 
be  accomplished  by  washing  with  kerosene.  If,  how- 
ever, the  piston-rings  are  to  be  taken  off  the  piston, 
they  must  be  separately  sprung  open  by  having  pieces 
of  sheet  metal  about  1-16"  thick  and  about  \"  wide  in- 
serted between  ring  and  body  of  piston. 

Air  and  exhaust  valves  should  also  be  periodically 
taken  out,  cleaned  and  examined,  and,  if  necessary,  re- 
ground  in.  Powdered  emery  or  glass  powder  is  con- 
sidered satisfactory  to  grind  the  valves  in  with. 

Care  should  be  taken,  in  replacing  valves,  that  they 
are  clean  and  free  from  rust  or  carbon,  and  are  allowed 
to  drop  on  their  seats  freely  and  do  not  stick  in  their 
guides. 

The  crank-shaft  bearings  will  periodically  require 
taking  up  as  they  show  signs  of  wear  and  commence 
to  knock  or  pound.  Usually,  for  this  adjustment, 
liners  are  left  between  the  cap  and  the  lower  half  of 
bearings.  These  liners  can  be  occasionally  reduced  in 
thickness,  so  that  the  cap  is  allowed  to  come  down 
close  on  to  the  shaft.  Great  care  must  be  taken,  in 


REPAIRS. 


159 


tightening  down  the  bearing  again  after  adjustment, 
that  it  is  not  bolted  down  too  tight  on  the  shaft  bear- 
ings; otherwise  heating  will  result  and  the  bearings 
and  journal  may  be  cut  and  damaged  in  running. 

The  connecting-rod  bearings  will  require  adjustment 
more  often  than  the  crank-shaft  or    main    bearings. 


FIG.  70. 


When  this  is  necessary,  the  engine  will  be  heard  to 
knock  at  each  revolution,  and  then  the  bearing  should 
be  taken  apart  at  the  crank-pin  bearing  and  about 
1-64"  filed  off.  (See  A,  Fig.  70.)  As  with  the  crank- 
shaft bearings,  great  care,  in  putting  bearing  back  in 
place,  must  be  exercised,  first  to  see  that  it  is  thor- 
oughly clean  and  free  from  dirt,  and  also,  when  read- 
justed, that  it  has  a  slight  motion  sideways  and  can 
thus  be  moved  by  hand. 

When  fitting  new  piston-ring,  it  is  well  to  place  the 


160  OIL    ENGINES. 

ring  in  the  cylinder  correctly;  it  should  have  slight 
space,  about  1-64"  left  for  the  expansion  between  the 
joint  which  will  take  place  when  heated  in  working. 

After  fitting  new  worm  or  spur  gearing  to  the  valve 
motion,  the  positions  of  the  cams  should  be  tested  by 
turning  the  fly-wheel  over  by  hand.  The  correct  posi- 
tions of  the  cams  are  shown  on  diagram,  Fig.  32. 

The  oil-filter  requires  occasional  renewing;  this  can 
be  made  of  muslin  placed  between  wire  gauze,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  28.  The  oil-supply  pump-valves,  if 
they  consist  of  steel  balls,  can  be  refitted  to  their  seats 
by  being  tapped  when  in  place  with  copper  plug  or 
piece  of  wood.  When  renewing  governor  parts,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  new  part  is  free  and  works 
without  friction ;  this  is  very  essential  where  close 
regulation  of  speed  is  required. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
OIL  ENGINE  TROUBLES. 

THE  requirements  for  proper  working  of  the  oil  en-  '" 
gine  have  been  already  mentioned  in  Chapter  VII.  as 
follows :  Proper  oil  and  air  supply  to  the  cylinder  or 
vaporizer,  proper  mixture  or  combination  of  air  and 
vapor,  correct  and  properly  timed  ignition.  Defects 
which  may  cause  improper  working  have  also  been  re- 
ferred to  in  Chapter  III.  on  testing. 

The  following  remarks  are  chiefly  applicable  to  the 
operator,  and  refer  to  difficulties  which  may  possibly 
be  encountered  in  the  actual  use  of  the  oil  engine. 

TROUBLES  OF  IGNITION. 

THE  ELECTRIC  IGNITER. — This  igniter  is  described 
in  Chapter  I.  Failure  in  operation  is  generally  due 
to  the  following  causes : 

BREAKAGE  IN  ONE  OR  OTHER  OF  THE  ELECTRICAL 
CONNECTIONS. — To  discover  the  breakage  test  with  a 
length  of  wire  in  the  hands  bridged  across  between  the 
terminals  of  the  connection  which  is  thought  to  be  de- 
fective, the  circuit  through  the  cam-shaft  being  closed. 
If  a  spark  is  then  given  off  the  defect  has  been  located 
and  a  new  connection  should  be  put  in  place.  In 


l62  OIL    ENGINES. 

some  instances  a  spark  is  not  produced  because  the  bat- 
tery is  run  down ;  this  defect  can  be  ascertained  by  test- 
ing the  battery  with  a  small  volt  meter  or  by  bringing 
both  terminals  in  contact  one  with  another  from  the 
battery;  a  strong  spark  should  then  be  seen.  If  the 
battery  is  run  down,  it  must,  of  course,  be  recharged 
or  renewed.  The  terminals  in  the  cylinder  must  al- 
ways be  clean  and  free  from  carbon  deposit.  This  is 
important  especially  with  a  jump-spark  plug  igniter, 
as  the  terminals  in  the  cylinder  will  sometimes  become 
carbonized  or  corroded,  thus  forming  a  path  for  the 
current  to  flow  across  without  causing  any  spark. 

Failure  to  obtain  electric  spark  ignition  may  occur 
from  bad  insulation  of  the  plug.  In  this  case  a  new 
plug  should  be  substituted  for  the  defective  one.  In 
some  instances  the  electric  spark  is  not  procured  be- 
cause the  plug  is  short-circuited,  due  to  moisture.  To 
overcome  this  the  plug  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  dried  out  or  a  new  plug  must  be  substituted.  With 
the  type  of  igniter  having  movable  electrode,  owing 
to  friction  or  carbonizing,  the  two  electrodes  may  be 
prevented  from  touching.  In  this  case  the  moving 
electrode  should  be  eased  or  cleansed  and  allowed  to 
come  freely  in  contact  with  each  other. 

The  timing  of  the  ignition  with  the  electric  igniter 
is  regulated  by  altering  the  time  of  contact.  The  period 
of  ignition  varies  according  to  the  speed  of  the  engine. 
With  a  high  speed  the  ignition  should  take  place  just 
before  the  crank-pin  arrives  at  the  dead  centre ;  with  a 
slow-speed  engine  the  time  of  ignition  can  be  slightly 
later ;  that  is,  the  ignition  may  take  place  as  the  crank- 


OIL    ENGINE    TROUBLES.  163 

pin  passes  the  dead  centre.  When  starting  the  engine, 
the  ignition  is  retarded  until  the  normal  speed  of  the 
engine  is  attained. 

TUBE  IGNITER. — Troubles  with  this  form  of  igniter 
are  generally  due  to  corrosion  internally  of  the  tube. 
This  is  remedied  by  taking  the  tube  out  and  thor- 
oughly cleaning  it.  In  other  instances  ignition  is  not 
obtained  because  the  tube  is  not  properly  heated.  The 
temperature  of  the  tube  should  be  maintained  at  a  good 
red  heat.  With  the  tube  igniter  it  is  essential  that  the 
gases  can  properly  enter  it.  The  timing  of  ignition 
with  this  form  of  igniter  can  be  varied  by  changing 
the  length  of  the  tube  or  by  altering  the  part  of  the 
tube  which  is  heated.  If  an  earlier  ignition  is  re- 
quired, the  tube  should  be  heated  nearer  to  the  cylin- 
der end,  or  a  shorter  tube  should  be  used.  If  it  is  re- 
quired to  retard  the  time  of  ignition,  the  tube  can  be 
heated  further  from  the  cylinder,  and  accordingly  the 
gases  to  be  ignited  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
heated  part  so  rapidly. 

AUTOMATIC  IGNITER. — In  order  to  procure  proper 
ignition  with  this  form  of  igniter,  it  is  essential  that  the 
compression  of  the  air  and  gases  is  efficient.  This 
pressure  varies  in  different  types  of  engines,  and,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  indicator  cards  shown  in  Chap- 
ters III.  and  X.,  is  from  50  to  70  Ibs.  The  mixture 
of  air  and  oil  vapor  must  also  be  correct.  Failure  to 
obtain  an  ignition  with  this  type  of  engine  is  usually 
due  to  too  much  oil  having  been  allowed  to  enter  the 
vaporizer  or  cylinder,  or  to  the  fact  that  no  oil  at  all 
has  entered- the  vaporizer,  or,  as  already  stated,  to  fail- 


164  OIL    ENGINES. 

tire  to  obtain  proper  compression.  Ignition,  of  course, 
cannot  be  obtained  when  starting  unless  the  vaporizing 
chamber  or  retort  has  been  properly  heated. 

OIL  SUPPLY. — If  the  oil  supply  is  defective,  the  fault 
can  be  ascertained  by  careful  examination.  Discon- 
nect the  oil-supply  pipe  and  see  that  oil  flows  freely 
from  the  tank.  Sometimes  the  oil  filter  in  the  tank 
will  become  clogged  and  will  not  allow  the  oil  to  flow 
through  it.  If  oil  is  supplied  by  a  pump,  then  test  the 
pump,  as  shown  on  page  147.  Failure  of  the  pump 
to  operate  properly  is  due  to  leaky  valves  or  to  the 
packing  around  the  plunger,  allowing  air  to  leak  by, 
and  thus  the  proper  pressure  in  the  pump  is  lost. 

The  oil  supply  may -fail  by  reason  of  leakage  in  the 
oil  pipes.  This  may  easily  happen  where  the  oil  tank 
is  placed  below  the  level  of  the  engine  and  the  oil  has 
to  be  raised  from  the  tank  by  pump.  In  such  a  case 
the  engine  may  operate  when  the  pump  is 
working  at  full  stroke,  whereas  otherwise  no  oil  will 
be  delivered  to  the  cylinder  or  vaporizer. 

AIR  SUPPLY. — Defective  air  supply  is  due  to  leak- 
age in  the  piston-rings,  piston,  or  to  leakage  in  the  air 
and  exhaust  valves.  The  compression  in  the  cylinder 
is,  of  course,  governed  by  the  air  supply,  and  a  leakage 
in  the  valves  or  piston  can  be  tested  by  simply  turning 
the  engine  backwards.  With  proper  compression  it 
should  be  difficult  to  turn  the  crank-pin  past  the  in- 
ward dead  centre  during  the  compression  period. 

KNOCKING. — An  engine  working  properly  should  be 
quiet  in  operation.  Knocking  may  be  due  to  either 
loose  bearings  in  the  connecting-rod,  piston  or  crank- 


OIL    ENGINE    TROUBLES.  165 

pin  end,  to  loose  fly-wheel  keys,  or  to  improper  timing 
of  ignition.  The  first  two  defects  can  be  ascertained 
by  examination.  The  timing  of  ignition  is  most  easily 
ascertained  from  the  indicator  card.  (See  page  76.) 

Loss  OF  POWER. — This  may  be  due  to  increased  fric- 
tion in  the  engine,  which  friction  may  be  caused  by  bad 
lubrication  of  the  piston  or  the  piston  becoming 
gummed  up,  due  to  improper  combustion  or  to  the  use 
of  improper  lubricating  oil.  (See  page  140.)  Loss  of 
power  may  also  be  due  to  heated  bearings.  Either  of 
these  causes  can  be  easily  ascertained.  Insufficient  oil 
or  fuel  supply  due  to  the  wearing  of  the  moving  parts 
and  consequent  reduction  of  the  pressure  of  explosion 
is  sometimes  responsible  for  the  loss  of  power.  To 
overcome  this  the  supply  of  fuel  can  be  slightly  in- 
creased. That  the  proper  amount  of  fuel  is  being  sup- 
plied can  be  roughly  ascertained  by  the  color  of  the 
exhaust  gases.  If  too  much  oil  is  supplied  the  ex- 
haust gases  will  be  plainly  visible.  With  the  correct 
oil  supply  the  exhaust  gases  will  be  invisible  or  near- 
ly so. 

PISTON  BLOWING. — This  is  due  to  the  various  fol- 
lowing causes :  Improper  lubrication,  to  the  piston- 
rings  leaking,  to  the  piston-rings  having  become 
clogged,  or  to  the  cylinder  having  become  cut  or  worn. 
It  is  also  sometimes  due  to  over-expansion  of  the 
cylinder,  caused  by  over-heating  and  insufficient  water 
supply.  If  the  blowing  of  the  piston  cannot  be  reme- 
died by  proper  lubrication  or  by  thoroughly  cleaning 
the  piston-rings  new  piston-rings  must  be  put  in  place. 
In  some  cases  it  is  even  necessary  to  re-bore  the 


l66  OIL    ENGINES. 

cylinder  and  have  new  piston  and  rings.  The  blowing 
of  the  piston  may  be  also  caused  by  improper  combus- 
tion due  to  too  great  an  oil  supply  or  insufficient  air 
supply.  Escape  of  vapor  from  the  open  end  of  the 
piston,  which  is  thought  to  be  a  leakage,  is  sometimes 
caused  by  the  splashing  of  the  oil  on  the  overheated 
bearings  or  the  heated  portion  of  the  piston.  This  can 
be  ascertained  by  stopping  the  engine.  If  vapor  con- 
tinues to  escape  when  the  engine  is  at  rest,  its  cause 
is  apparent,  and  then  the  supply  of  lubricating  oil  to  the 
cylinder  can  be  reduced. 

EXPLOSIONS  IN  THE  MUFFLER  OR  SILENCER. — A 
loud  report  may  sometimes  be  heard,  caused  by  the  ex- 
plosion in  the  exhaust  pipe  or  muffler.  This  is  due 
to  the  gases  passing  through  the  cylinder  unconsumed 
and  then  becoming  ignited  in  the  silencer.  It  is  not 
possible  to  create  a  dangerous  pressure  in  this  way, 
and  as  the  silencer  is  usually  a  heavy  cast-iron  cham- 
ber and  always  open  to  the  atmosphere,  the  worst  re- 
sult is  annoyance  of  the  noise.  Explosions  in  the  si- 
lencer or  exhaust  pipe  can  be  obviated  by  reduc- 
ing the  oil  supply,  and  are  often  caused  by  starting  the 
engine  before  the  igniting  apparatus  is  sufficiently 
heated  to  cause  proper  ignition. 

LEAKAGE  OF  WATER. — Engines  will  sometimes  re- 
fuse to  operate  due  to  this  cause.  Leakage  of  water 
can  easily  be  ascertained  by  examination  of  the  piston 
and  cylinder,  or  the  piston  can  be  withdrawn  from  the 
cylinder.  Testing  of  the  water-jackets  has  already 
been  explained  in  Chapter  III.,  and  the  leakage,  if 
found,  must  be  remedied  by  new  joints.  If  such  leak- 


OIL    ENGINE    TROUBLES.  167 

age  is  due  to  defect  in  the  casting,  it  can  sometimes  be 
remedied  by  drilling  out  the  defective  material  and  by 
tapping  and  plugging  the  cylinder  walls  or  other  de- 
fective part.  This  work,  however,  requires  consid- 
erable care  to  thoroughly  overcome  the  leakage. 


CHAPTER  X. 

VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED. 
THE  CROSSLEY  OIL  ENGINES 

FIGURE  71  illustrates  the  Crossley  oil  engine  having 
one  heavy  fly-wheel.  Their  "lampless"  type  of  engine 
is  shown  in  Fig.  yia,  which  has  their  latest  vaporizer 
shown  in  section  at  Fig.  3  and  two  heavy  fly-wheels 
suitable  for  electric  lighting  purposes.  The  method  of 
vaporizing  and  igniting  used  with  the  Crossley  engine 
is  fully  described  in  Chapter  I.  devoted  to  that  subject. 

The  fuel  oil-tank  is  placed  against  the  cast-iron  base 
of  the  engine,  and  the  oil  is  pumped  to  the  vaporizer 
in  the  usual  way  by  an  oil-pump  actuated  by  the  cam- 
shaft and  in  regular  fixed  quantities,  but  the  fuel  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  vaporizer  only  in  exactly  the 
proper  quantity,  the  oil  supply  being  controlled  by  the 
special  measuring  device,  which  consists  of  an  inlet 
automatic  valve  leading  to  the  vaporizer  and  an  over- 
flow-pipe leading  back  to  the  oil-tank.  If  the  oil  supply 
from  the  pump  at  any  time  is  greater  than  the  amount 
of  oil  which  should  enter  the  vaporizer,  the  fuel  is  re- 


170  OIL    MXGIXMS. 

jected  by  the  oil-measuring  device,  which  is  actuated 
by  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  during  the  air- 


Diagram  from  the  Crossley  Engine:  Revolutions  per  minute. 
180;  M.  E.  P.,  69  Ibs. ;  compression  pressure,  48  Ibs. ; 
maximum  pressure,  240  Ibs. 


Diagram  from  Crossley  Engine:  Revolutions  per  minute. 
180 ;  M.  E.  P.,  50  Ibs. ;  compression  pressure,  50  Ibs. ; 
maximum  pressure,  180  Ibs. 

suction  period.    The  oil  then  returns  through  the  over- 
flow-pipe to  the  tank. 


VARIOUS     ENGINES     DESCRIBED.  171 

The  centrifugal  governor  is  actuated  by  separate 
gearing  and  horizontal  shaft  direct  from  the  crank- 


shaft, and  the  governor  regulates  the    speed  of    the 
engine  by  acting  on  the  hit-and-miss  system,  and  con- 


172  OIL    ENGINES. 

trols  the  vapor  inlet-valve  to  the  cylinder.  Thus,  if 
the  required  speed  of  the  engine  is  exceeded,  the 
vapor-valve  is  not  opened,  and  accordingly  only  air  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  air-inlet  valve  on 
the  top  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  actuated  by  eccentric 
from  the  cam-shaft.  No  oil  vapor  is  drawn  into  the 
cylinder,  and  the  next  explosion  is  missed.  The  lamp 
for  heating  the  vaporizer  receives  its  supply  from  the 
oil-tank  placed  against  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  oil 
for  the  lamp  is  supplied  by  a  separate  pump,  both  oil- 
pumps  being  actuated  from  the  same  eccentric. 


THE  CUNDALL  OIL  ENGINE. 

This  oil  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  72,  and  it 
has  oil-tank  in  the  cast-iron  base  of  engine,  the  fuel  be- 
ing pumped  to  the  vaporizer  in  the  usual  way,  the  oil 
supply  being  regulated  by  a  small  adjustable  thimble 
inside  the  cup  on  the  vaporizer.  The  vaporizer  and 
tube  are  heated  by  separate  lamp  supplied  from  oil-tank 
placed  above  the  engine  by  gravity  feed.  Both  air  and 
exhaust  valves  are  actuated  from  the  horizontal  cam- 
shaft in  the  usual  way.  The  centrifugal  governor  is 
operated  by  bevel-gearing  from  the  cam-shaft  and  con- 
trols the  speed  by  acting  on  the  oil-inlet  valve. 

THE  CAMPBELL  OIL  ENGINE. 

Fig.  73  illustrates  larger-sized  engine  fitted  with  one 
fly-wheel  only  and  outside  bearing  suitable  for  electric- 


OIL    ENGINES. 


lighting  purposes.     The  vaporizing  and  igniting  appa- 
ratus of  this  type  is  described  in  Chapter  I.    The  fuel 


Light-load  diagram  taken  from  Campbell  engine:  Cylinder, 
9.5"  in  diameter;  stroke,  18";  revolutions  per  minute,  210; 
M.  E.  P.,  55.9  Ibs. 


Full-load  diagram  from  Campbell  Engine :  Cylinder,  9.5"  in 
diameter;  18"  stroke;  revolutions  per  minute,  210; 
M.  E.  P.,  69.25;  compression  pressure,  55  Ibs.;  maximum 
pressure,  232  Ibs. 


oil-tank  is  placed  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and  the 


VARIOUS     ENGINES     DESCRIBED.  1/5 

fuel  is  fed  by  gravitation  to  the  vaporizer  and  to  the 
heating  lamp,  there  being  no  oil-pumps.  There  are  only 
two  valves — the  air-inlet  valve,  which  is  automatic,  and 
the  exhaust-valve,  which  is  operated  by  the  cam,  which 
is  actuated  by  spur-gearing  from  the  crank-shaft,  the 
necessary  power  to  open  the  valve  being  transmitted 
through  the  horizontal  rod  in  compression.  The  cen- 
trifugal governor  is  mounted  on  separate  horizontal 
shaft,  and  is  actuated  by  separate  gearing  from  the 
crank-shaft.  The  speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by 
suitable  device  which  is  inserted  by  the  action  of  the 
governor  between  the  exhaust-lever  and  the  stationary 
bracket  when  the  normal  speed  is  exceeded,  thus  hold- 
ing open  the  exhaust-valve  and  preventing  any  of  the 
oil  vapor  and  air  from  entering  the  cylinder  during  the 
suction  period. 


PRIESTMAN    OIL   ENGINE. 

Fig.  74  represents  this  type  of  engine  as  made  by 
Messrs.  Priestman  in  the  United  States. 

The  design  of  this  engine  is  upon  the  "  straight  line" 
principle,  and  differs  from  the  other  engines  herein 
described.  In  this  engine,  both  the  fly-wheels  are  ar- 
ranged to  be  inside  of  the  main  shaft  bearings  instead 
of  at  each  side  of  the  frame,  as  is  usual.  The  makers 
claim  great  advantages  for  this  design,  inasmuch  as  the 
strain  on  the  bearings  is  minimized.  The  crank-pin  is 
placed  between  the  two  fly-wheels,  the  hub  of  each  fly- 


176 


OIL    ENGINES. 


wheel  becoming  the  cheek  of  the  crank.  The  oil-tank 
is  placed  in  the  bed  of  the  engine ;  an  air  pressure  of 
five  or  six  pounds  is  always  maintained  in  this  tank  by 
means  of  the  separate  air-pump  actuated  from  the 
cam-shaft  by  eccentric.  The  vaporizer  spraying  and 
igniting  devices  are  fully  described  in  Chapter  I. 
The  governor  is  driven  by  belt  from  the  crank-shaft 


FIG.  74- 


and  is  of  the  centrifugal  or  pendulum  type.  The 
speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by  suitable  mechanism 
acting  on  the  throttle-valve  regulating  the  supply  of 
oil  and  air  entering  the  vaporizer.  The  air-inlet  valve 
to  the  cylinder  is  automatic,  the  exhaust-valve  being 
actuated  by  horizontal  rod  operated  from  a  cam  placed 


VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED. 


177 


on  the  cam-shaft.    This  engine,  it  is  claimed,  requires 
little  or  no  lubrication  for  the  piston. 

The  following  test  was  made  in  the  Engineering 
Laboratory  at  University  College,  Nottingham,  Eng- 
land, on  single-acting  horizontal  English  type  of 
Priestman  oil  engine  having  cylinder  lof"  dia.  and 


aZo  re  c  trrr  > 


120 


lifk 


QJ  Q3  Or?  P^t  O*V.  -GX0  C4*2>>fee>&_t 

INDICATOR  CARD  OF  THE  PRIESTMAN  ENGINE. 


14*  stroke,  capable  of  developing  lof  actual  or  brake 
horsepower  at  160  R.  P.  M.  The  test  was  made  after 
seven  years'  service  of  the  engine  using  American 
kerosene,  known  as  Royal  Daylight,  specific  gravity 
0.792  at  60°  Fahr.  and  having  flash  point  83°  Fahr. 
The  effective  work  recorded  is  the  effective  indicated 


178  OIL  ENGINES. 

pressure  in  the  cylinder,  the  back  pressure  of  the  ex- 
haust and  suction  strokes  being  deducted.* 

TABLE  V. 

TRIALS  OF  PRIESTMAN  OIL  ENGINE,  DEC.  Q,   IpOO   (ROBINSON). 

Duration  of  run  (hours) —  2 

Revolutions  per  min.  mean —  160 

Pressure  before  ignition    (above   atmos- 
phere), Ib.  per  sq.  in —  20 

Mean  pressure,  Ib.  per  sq.  in —  44 

Mean  back  pressure   (pumping  strokes) 

Ib.  per  sq.  inch —  3 

Net  effective  pressure —  41 

Net  effective  indicated  H.P —  10.5 

Brake  or  actual  H.  P —  8.4 

Engine  friction  H.   P —  2.1 

Mechanical  efficiency  per  cent —  80 

Oil  used  per  hour  (total  Ib.) —  8.82 

per    I. H.P.   Ib —  0.84 

per  B.H.P.  Ib —  1.05 

Cooling  water  through  jacket,  Ib.  per  min. —  22.5 
Cooling  water  rise    in    temp.    57°  to  113° 

Fahr -  56° 

THE  MIETZ  &  WEISS  ENGINE. 

This  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  75.  It  works  not, 
as  some  other  engines  described  herein,  on  the  Beau 
de  Rochas  cycle,  but  on  the  two-cycle  princi- 
ple— that  is,  an  explosion  is  obtained  in  the  cyl- 
inder at  each  revolution  of  the  crank-shaft.  As  the 
oil-tank  is  above  the  cylinder,  fuel  is  supplied  to  the 
smaller  engines  partly  by  gravitation — the  quantity  in- 

*"Gas  and  Petroleum  Engines,"  by  Prof.  Wm.  Robin- 
son, pp.  688. 


FIG.  75 


(To  face  p.  178.) 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED. 


179 


jected,  however,  into  the  cylinder  being  regulated  by 
small  oil  supply  pump.  Where  required,  the  oil  tank 
can  be  placed  below  the  level  of  the  engine.  A  sec- 
tional view  of  the  horizontal  engine  is  shown  at  Fig. 
750.  The  Mietz  &  Weiss  marine  engine  is  also 
shown  at  Fig.  75^  made  vertical  of  single  or  multi- 
cylinder  type.  It  operates  on  a  similar  plan  of  opera- 
tion to  the  horizontal  engine,  a  special  feature  of  the 
multi-cylinder  type  being  the  use  of  one  oil  pump  for 
the  injection  of  the  fuel  into  one  or  more  cylinders. 


HORSE-POWERS 

FIG.  7ib. 

This  vertical  marine  type  engine  is  made  in  sizes  up 
to  200  H.  P.,  and  is  also  used  for  industrial  purposes 
direct-connected  to  electric  generators  and  for  general 
power  purposes.  The  fuel  is  injected  into  the  cylinder 
of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engines  with  some  steam.  The 
steam  being  generated  in  the  water  jackets  surround- 
ing the  cylinder,  which  are  allowed  to  rise  to  a  tem- 
perature necessary  for  generating  the  steam.  The  oil 
is  vaporized  in  a  hot  chamber  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying sectional  illustrations  placed  at  the  back  of 
the  cylinder,  which  is  heated  for  a  few  minutes  in 
starting  by  independent  lamp.  Afterwards  the  heat 


180  OIL    ENGINES. 

created  by  constant  combustion  maintain  the  igniter 
at  proper  temperature  automatically. 

The  governor  of  the  improved  Mietz  &  Weiss  en- 
gine is  of  the  centrifugal  type,  and  acts  through  a  vari- 
able stroke  on  the  kerosene  pump,  graduating 
the  charge  for  varying  loads.  The  governor  weight 
is  arranged  near  the  shaft  at  the  hub  of  the  fly-wheel, 
to  which  it  is  pivoted  at  one  end,  the  other  end  being 
secured  to  an  adjustable  spring,  the  tension  of  which 
determines  the  speed.  The  eccentric  is  free  to  slide  at 
right  angles  to  the  shaft,  and,  being  pivoted  to  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  governor  weight,  receives  a  slight 
turning  movement  ahead  from  no  load  to  full  load. 
The  regulation  with  this  governor  is  extremely  close 
in  direct  electric  lighting  service,  where  many  of  these 
engines  are  in  use,  either  belted  or  direct-coupled  to 
generators. 

The  deficiency  of  pressure  in  the  crank-chamber  is 
used  to  raise  the  lubricating  oil  from  an  oil  well  placed 
below  the  sight  feed  oilers  which  supply  oil  to  the  cyl- 
inder and  crank-chamber.  The  crank  bearings  are  lu- 
bricated by  means  of  ring  oilers.  These  engines  are 
now  made  in  various  sizes  from  i — 200  HP,  being 
direct-connected  to  dynamos,  as  shown  in  Fig.  580. 
They  are  also  direct-connected  to  centrifugal  pumps, 
hoists  as  well  as  air-compressors.  The  compression 
of  the  air  is  generated  in  the  crank-chamber  and  the 
air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  at  a  slight  pressure  dur- 
ing each  outstroke  of  the  piston.  The  exhaust  open- 
ing is  automatically  uncovered  by  the  piston,  the  ex- 
haust passage  being  made  in  the  cylinder  wall.  As  the 


FIG.  75c. 


(To  face  p.  180.) 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  l8l 

piston  travels  toward  the  end  of  the  stroke,  this  passage 
is  uncovered,  and  the  products  of  combustion 
are  free  to  pass  to  the  exhaust-pipe,  while  the 


Indicator  diagram  taken  from  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  Engine: 
diameter  of  cylinder,  12";  stroke,  12";  revolutions  per 
minute,  300;  scale,  100;  B.  H.  P.,  20. 

piston  travels  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  and  the  first  part 
of  the  return  stroke  until  the  port  is  again  covered, 
when  the  compression  period  commences  for  the  next 
explosion.  Consequently  no  valves  are  necessary,  the 
air  inlet  to  the  cylinder  being  controlled  by  the  action 
of  the  piston  only,  which  simplifies  the  action  of  the 
engine. 


l82  OIL   ENGINES. 


HORNSBY-AKROYD  OIL  ENGINE. 

Fig.  76  shows  this  engine  as  made  by  the  De  La 
Vergne  Machine  Company,  of  New  York.  It  is  also 
made  by  the  patentees  at  Grantham,  England,  and  in 
France  and  Germany.- 

The  Hornsby-Ackroyd  engine  is  made  in  sizes  of  i^ 
to  500  H.  P.,  all  sizes  being  made  of  the  horizontal 
type.  This  engine  as  made  by  the  English  makers  is 
shown  at  Fig.  77.  The  fuel  oil-tank  is  placed  in  the 
base  of  the  engine  and  the  fuel  is  delivered  to  the  va- 
porizer by  the  small  pump  actuated  from  the  cam- 
shaft by  the  lever  which  also  actuates  the  air-inlet 
valve.  The  oil  supply  is  raised  to  the  vaporizer  valve- 
box  in  regular  quantities,  but  the  oil  is  only  allowed  to 
enter  the  vaporizer  to  the  required  amount,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  oil  flowing  back  to  the  tank  through 
the  by-pass  valve  which  is  regulated  by  the  governor. 
Thus,  if  the  speed  of  the  fly-wheel  exceeds  the  normal 
number  of  revolutions  for  which  the  engine  is  set,  the 
governor  mechanism  opens  the  by-pass  oil-valve,  allow- 
ing part  of  the  oil  to  flow  back  to  the  oil-tank,  and  ac- 
cordingly reduces  the  charge  entering  the  vaporizer, 
and  consequently  the  mean  pressure  for  one  or  more 
explosions  is  reduced  in  the  cylinder.  The  governor  is 
of  the  Porter  type,  actuated  by  gearing  from  the  cam- 
shaft. The  method  of  vaporizing  and  igniting  is  fully 
described  in  Chapter  I.  Both  air-inlet  and  exhaust 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  183 

valves  are  actuated  from  the  cam-shaft,  these  valves 


FIG.  770. 


being  placed  on  the  side  of  the  engine.    The  air  inlet 
in  this  type  is  different  from  the  other  engines  de- 


184  OIL    ENGINES. 

scribed.    In  this  case  the  air  enters  not  through  the  va- 
porizer, but  by  means  of  separate  valve-chamber. 


Diagram  taken  from  Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine :  M.  E.  P.,  48 
Ibs. ;  compression  pressure,  50  Ibs. ;  maximum  pressure, 
160  Ibs. ;  revolutions  per  minute,  185 ;  cylinder,  18.5" 
diameter;  24"  stroke;  full  load. 


Diagram  taken  from  Hornsby-Akroyd  Engine:  Diameter  of 
cylinder,  n";  stroke,  15";  M.  E.  P.,  49.5  Ibs.;  compression 
pressure,  60  Ibs.;  revolutions  per  minute,  230;  consump- 
tion of  oil  W.  W.,  150°  F.  0.8  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour. 


VARIOUS   ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  185 

A  two-cycle  vertical  high  speed  engine  is  shown  at 
Fig-  77a,  made  and  patented  by  the  De  La  Vergne  Ma- 
chine Company.  This  engine  operates  on  the  two- 
cycle  plan,  as  explained  on  page  17. 

The  features  peculiar  to  this  engine  are  the  vaporizer, 
which  is  illustrated  Fig.  770,  at  V,  and  the  sprayer, 
which  is  shown  at  N.  This  sprayer  is  also  shown  at 
Fig.  70,  and  described  on  page  13.  As  will  be  seen 
from  Fig.  770,  the  vaporizer  is  made  of  a  conical  shape 
and  the  oil  is  injected  directly  into  it. 

The  compression  of  the  air  before  explosion  takes 
place  in  the  crank-case  and  enters  the  cylinder  at  pass- 
age A.  There  being  no  contracted  opening  to  the  va- 
porizer, and  as  a  compression  pressure  of  100  Ibs.  is 
used,  the  clearance  in  the  combustion  space  is  very 
small  and  all  the  air  entering  the  cylinder  is  forced 
into  the  vaporizer,  where  it  freely  mingles  with  the  fuel. 
A  baffle  plate  placed  on  the  piston  deflects  the  air  into 
the  vaporizer  and  a  slight  scavenging  effect  is  pro- 
duced, which  forces  the  exhaust  gases  from  the  ^com- 
bustion chamber.  The  exhaust  opening  is  shown  at 
E. 

The  engine  runs  at  approximately  500  R.  P.  M.  and 
is  specially  adapted  for  direct  connection  to  electric 
generators. 

The  governor  is  shown  in  detail  at  Fig.  246,  and  is 
of  the  centrifugal  type  placed  in  the  fly-wheel,  and  is 
arranged  to  operate  directly  on  the  oil  supply  pump. 
The  indicator  cards  are  shown  at  Fig.  77&,  that  at  A 
being  from  the  power  cylinder  at  fuel  load,  and  that  at 
B  taken  from  the  crank  chamber. 


1 86 


OIL   ENGINES. 


This  engine  is  made  in  sizes  up  to  25  H.  P.  of  the 
twin  cylinder  type.  The  bearings  of  the  larger  sizes 
are  water-jacketed  to  insure  maintenance  of  low  tem- 
perature and  allow  free  lubrication.  Oiling  of  all  bear- 
ings is  effected  by  means  of  a  force  feed  oil  pump. 


i   -r 

4-2  - 

Aim r 


FIG.  77&. 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED. 


i87 


The  vertical  type  Hornsby-Akroyd  engine,  which 
was  previously  built,  is  also  shown  here  in  sec- 
tion (Figs.  78  and  79).  The  cam-shaft  is  operated 


i88 


OIL  ENGINES. 


by  a  gearing  from  the  crank-shaft  in  the  regular  way, 
the  valves  being  operated  by  levers  and  rods.  As  will 
be  seen  from  the  illustration,  the  cylinders  are  built 
separately,  being  water- jacketed  and  mounted  on  a 


FIG.  79- 

cast-iron  frame  of  the  enclosed  type  containing  the 
crank-shaft.  Lubrication  is  effected  from  the  splash- 
ing of  the  crank  in  a  bath  of  oil.  The  15  H.  P.  engine 
has  cylinders  &j"  diameter  by  9"  stroke.  The 
governing  is  effected  by  regulating  the  length  of  the 
stroke  of  the  oil  pump;  no  adjustment  of  the  pump  is 
therefore  necessary.  The  governor  is  of  the  Rites  pat- 


VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED.  189 

ent  type,  and  a  regulation  of  less  than  2  per  cent  is 
claimed  by  the  makers  of  this  engine,  with  a  variation 
of  the  load  within  the  engine's  limits. 

THE  RITES  GOVERNOR. 

An  illustration  of  the  Rites  governor  is  shown  at 
Fig.  80.      It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  placed  in  the  fly- 


FIG.  80. 

wheel  in  the  usual  way  with  this  type  of  governor. 
The  Rites  governor  has  now  become  so  widely  known 
that  only  a  short  description  is  necessary.  Briefly,  it 
consists  of  but  a  single  weight,  distributed  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  shaft  with  a  spring  connection  to  balance 
centrifugal  force.  In  its  application  to  the  oil  or  gas 


igO  OIL    ENGINES. 

engine  an  eccentric  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  weight 
structure  is  provided.  The  movement  (while  in  op- 
eration) of  the  governor  weight  consequent  upon  any 
change  in  speed  of  the  crank-shaft  is  transmitted  to 
the  regulating  device  by  means  of  the  eccentric  attached 
to  the  governor  weight,  on  which  are  fitted  eccentric 
straps  and  rod.  The  other  end  of  this  eccentric  rod  is 
attached  to  a  lever,  which  reciprocates  the  shaft  on 
which  is  placed  the  eccentric  fulcrum  controlling  the 
stroke  of  the  plunger  of  the  oil-supply  pump  or  the 
opening  of  the  gas  valve. 

The  operation  is  as  follows :  If  the  speed  of  the 
crank-shaft  is  increased  by  a  fraction  beyond  the  re- 
quired maximum  speed,  the  momentum  of  the  weight 
overcomes  the  strength  of  the  spring,  thus  changing 
the  throw  of  the  eccentrics,  which  in  turn  reduces  the 
length  of  the  oil-pump  stroke. 

Among  the  many  claims  for  the  Rites  governor  are 
the  following:  It  allows  of  a  large  range  of  adjust- 
ment. It  is  remarkably  quick  in  action,  and  the  distri- 
bution of  the  governor  weights  on  each  side  of  the 
weight-pin  and  also  on  each  side  of  the  crank- 
shaft allows  the  governor  strength  to  be  greatly 
increased  without  necessarily  increasing  the  centrifu- 
gal element  correspondingly,  and  utilizes  the  inertia 
action  of  the  governor  most  effectively  for  extreme 
changes  of  load.  There  is  only  one  bearing  requiring 
lubrication — namely,  that  of  the  fulcrum  pin.  No  dash- 
pot  is  required,  and  only  a  small  brake  or  drag  is  used 
to  steady  the  movement  of  the  governor  weight. 

The  speed  of  the  engine  is  altered  by  the  adjustment 


VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED.  19! 

of  the  spiral  spring  controlling  the  weights.  Speed  is 
increased  by  moving  the  pin  holding  spring  outwards 
from  the  fulcrum  pin  and  at  the  same  time  correspond- 
ingly increasing  the  tension  of  the  spring,  to  preserve 
a  constant  proportional  initial  tension  corresponding 
to  the  change  of  leverage  of  the  spring. 

To  decrease  speed,  reverse  the  above  operation,  or,  if 
desired,  add  to  the  weight,  thus  increasing  its  centrifu- 
gal force. 

To  remedy  racing,  move  the  spring  connection  to  the 
governor  weight  in  its  slot  away  from  the  weight-pin, 
leaving  the  tension  of  the  spring  unchanged.  If  it  is 
required  to  regulate  closer,  reverse  this  movement  of 
the  pin  in  its  slot ;  that  is,  towards  the  weight-pin. 


LB. 
COM  P. =95 
MAX.— 330 


FIG.  Sob. 

JOHNSTON  OIL  ENGINE. — The  Johnston  oil  engine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  8oa.  It  is  made  in  various  sizes  up 
to  200  H.  P.  of  the  vertical  type  with  one  or  more 
cylinders.  It  operates  on  the  four-cycle  principle,  the 
air  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  being  actuated  from  a 
cam-shaft  placed  outside  the  crank  casing  operated  by 
gearing  from  the  crank-shaft  in  the  usual  way. 


192  OIL    ENGINES. 

The  chief  feature  of  this  engine  is  the  method  of  ig- 
nition, which  is  effected  by  means  of  a  hot  surface,  being 
a  hot  plate  on  the  end  of  the  piston,  which  is  maintained 
at  the  proper  temperature  by  the  heat  of  combustion, 
and  is  insulated  from  the  piston  itself.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  indicator  card  at  Fig.  806. 
the  compression  pressure  is  approximately  100  Ibs.  per 
square  inch,  and  the  maximum  pressure  300  Ibs. 

The  injection  of  the  fuel  takes  place  after  compres- 
sion is  completed,  that  is,  at  the  end  of  the  inward 
stroke. 

A  small  air  compressor  attached  to  the  crank-shaft 
furnishes  the  air  necessary  for  spraying  the  fuel  into 
the  cylinder.  The  same  compressor  also  furnishes  the 
compressed  air  necessary  for  starting  the  engine.  In 
starting,  a  metal  thimble  placed  in  the  combustion  cham- 
ber is  heated  by  an  external  torch.  An  electric  ignitor 
is  used  in  some  cases  instead  of  the  heated  thimble 
for  starting.  The  makers  of  this  engine  claim  a  fuel 
consumption  of  three-fifths  of  a  pound  of  fuel  or  crude 
oil  per  actual  B.  H.  P.  per  hour. 

THE  BRITANNIA  Co/s  OIL  ENGINE. 

An  engine  fully  described  in  the  Engineer*  (Lon- 
don), made  by  the  Britannia  Co.,  of  Colchester,  Eng- 
land, is  shown  at  Figs.  81,  82  and  83.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  illustrations  that  it  is  of  simple  design.  The 
vaporizer  is  a  modification  of  the  type  as  shown  at 
Fig.  2  and  referred  to  on  page  8.  The  oil  is  stored 
in  the  base  of  the  engine  and  is  raised  to  the  vaporizer 
by  the  suction  of  the  piston.  Consequently  no  oil 
pump  is  required.  The  air  inlet  valve  C  is  automatic, 

*See  Engineer  and  Engineering,  London,  of  June  19,  1003. 


VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED. 


193 


and  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  engine  above  the  ex- 
haust valve  D.  The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type 
and  operates  on  the  "hit-and-miss"  principle,  and 
is  arranged  to  control  the  vapor  inlet  valve.  On 
starting  the  engine  the  vaporizer  is  heated  by  external 
lamp  for  a  few  minutes  and  a  small  amount  of  fuel  is 
injected  into  the  vaporizer  by  means  of  the  filling  cup, 
marked  E.  The  vaporizer  consists  of  a  flat  cast-iron 
box,  marked  A,  provided  with  baffle  plates,  which  cause 
the  oil  or  vapor  to  travel  backwards  and  forwards 


FIG.  82. 


FIG.  83. 


The 


through  passages  before  entering  the  cylinder, 
ignition  is  caused  by  means  of  tube  B. 

In  operation  the  oil  is  raised  to  the  vaporizer  from 
the  tank  by  the  vacuum  in  the  cylinder,  caused  by  the 
outstroke  of  the  piston.  The  cylinder  communicates  with 
the  vaporizer  through  the  vapor  inlet  valve  only.  Air 
enters  both  through  the  main  air  inlet  valve  C,  Fig.  81, 
and  a  passage  communicating  with  the  vaporizer.  The 
air  entering  can  be  throttled  so  that  proportions 
of  air  entering  by  alternative  ways  can  be  regulated 


IQ4  °IL  ENGINES. 

as  required.  The  oil  supply  enters  by  the  passage 
closed  by  means  of  sleeve  e,  which  forms  also  a  valve 
as  shown  in  Fig.  83.  When  the  sleeve  moves,  due  to 
the  vacuum  in  the  cylinder,  by  piston  movement,  oil  is 
drawn  (through  .holes  in  the  sleeVe)  into  the  vaporizer. 
The  amount  of  oil  entering  depends  on  the  amount  of 
air  allowed  to  enter  the  cylinder  through  the  vaporizer. 
When  due  to  the  action  of  the  governor,  the  vapor 
valve  remains  closed,  no  communication  is  made  with 
the  cylinder  and  no  oil  enters  the  vaporizer.  Two 
passages  between  the  vaporizer  valve  and  the  cylinder 
are  made,  in  one  of  which  is  the  igniter-plug,  which  is 
simply  a  piece  of  steel  having  projecting  internal  ribs 
which  absorb  the  heat  from  explosion,  becoming  red- 
hot  in  operation.  No  exhaust  gases  pass  through  the 
igniter,  and  on  light  loads  gases  only  enter  the  igniter 
preceding  an  explosion.  The  temperature  of  igniter 
and  vaporizer  is  easily  maintained,  and  no  stoppage 
due  to  the  cooling  of  the  vaporizer  can  occur. 

AMERICAN  OIL  ENGINE  Co.'s  ENGINE. 

A  vertical  type  oil  engine  made  by  the  American 
Oil  Engine  Co.,  suitable  for  industrial  and  marine  pur- 
poses, is  shown  in  the  single  and  twin-cylinder  type 
at  Fig.  84  and  in  section  at  Fig.  85.  It  is  of  the  two- 
cycle  type,  the  compression  of  the  air  previous  to 
ignition  being  effected  in  the  crank  chamber,  from 
whence  it  passes  by  a  passage  and  port  uncovered  by 
the  piston  as  it  moves  forward,  to  the  cylinder.  The 
fuel  is  supplied  by  oil  pump  operated  by  cam  and 


VARIOUS   ENGINES   DESCRIBED. 


195 


placed  close  to  the  sprayer  shown  in  Fig.  85.     The 
.governing  is  effected,  by  means  of  a  sliding  cam  which 


FIG.  84. 

actuates  the  oil  supply  pump  and  shortens  or  lengthens 
the  stroke  of  the  pump  in  accordance  with  the  load. 


196 


OIL    ENGINES. 


The  ignition  of  the  charge  is  caused  by  the  heat  of  a 
steel  disc  on  to  which  the  fuel  is  sprayed.  Starting  is 
effected  either  with  an  electric  igniter  or  by  means  of 


ELECTRIC  IGN 
FOR  STARTING 
WITH   GASOLINE 


FIG.  85. 

tube  heated  externally  by  kerosene  torch.  Gasoline  or 
alcohol  is  used  instead  of  kerosene  for  starting  when 
the  electric  igniter  is  operated.  A  multiple  force  feed 


VARIOUS    ENGINES   DESCRIBED.  IQ/ 

oil  pump  furnishes  lubrication  to  the  cylinder  and  all 
bearings.  This  engine  is  made  in  various  sizes  from 
i^  H.  P.  upwards. 


THE  BARKER  ENGINE. 

A  type  of  engine  which  in  recent  years  has  received 
some  attention  from  inventors  is  that  in  which  the  cyl- 
inders revolve  around  a  fixed  crank-pin  or  cam.  For 
situations  where  space  is  limited  and  where  vibration 
should  be  eliminated  and  weight  per  horse  power  re- 


Fin.  86. 


duced  to  a  minimum,  the  advantages  of  this  type  of 
engine  are  apparent. 

Fig.  86  shows  the  engine  complete.     It  will  be  noted 
that  there  is  no  fly-wheel,  the  cylinders  themselves 


198 


OIL  ENGINES. 


revolving  around  the  centre  bearing  and  furnishing  the 
necessary  momentum.  The  engine  works  on  the 
"Otto,"  or  four-cycle ;  that  is,  each  cycle  of  operation 
in  each  cylinder  consists  of  four  strokes ;  thus  a  four- 
cylinder  engine  has  four  impulses  each  revolution.  This 
is  effected  by  the  use  of  the  cam  motion  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  87. 


FIG.  88. 


87,  instead  of  the  ordinary  crank.  This  mechanism  is 
equivalent  to  a  double-throw  crank. 

Fig.  88  shows  the  four  pistons  in  position,  the  cyl- 
inders having  been  removed. 

The  air  and  vapor  inlet  to  the  cylinders  and  the 
exhaust  outlet  are  effected  through  the  hollow  spin- 
dle on  which  the  cylinders  revolve,  radial  ports  or  pas- 
sage-ways being  made  in  the  spindle,  which  are  un- 
covered by  recesses  in  the  cylinders,  as  these  recesses 
coincide  with  the  ports  of  the  cylinder  at  each  revolu- 
tion. 

The  ignition  is  caused  by  electric  igniter  of  the  jump- 
spark  type.  The  timing  of  the  ignition  is  obtained  by 


VARIOUS  ENGINES  DESCRIBED.  IQ9 

a  revolving  contact  breaker.  When  using  gasoline, 
a  carburetor  of  the  ordinary  float  type  is  attached. 
When  kerosene  is  used  as  fuel,  a  vaporizer  somewhat 
similar  to  that  shown  at  Fig.  3  is  used,  the  heat  from 
the  exhaust  gases  being  sufficient  to  maintain  the  re- 
quired temperature  for  vaporization.  The  oil  is  fed 
by  gravity  and  the  vapor  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  by 
the  piston  displacement  in  the  usual  way.  The  power 
is  taken  off  from  a  pulley  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
cylinder. 

A  motor  of  this  type  of  one  actual  horse-power 
weighs  about  15  Ibs. ;  a  3  H.  P.  weighs  approximately 
35  pounds.  A  speed  of  about  800  R.  P.  M.  is  obtained, 
which  speed  is  varied  by  the  lead  given  to  the  igniter. 
When  running  at  a  high  speed  the  engine  can  be  held 
in  the  hands  without  vibration. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
PORTABLE  ENGINES. 

PORTABLE  type  oil  engines,  made  by  nearly  all  mak- 
ers of  fixed  horizontal  engines,  are  used  for 
various  purposes.  Such  engines  combined  with  air 
compressors  are  very  useful  for  operating  pneumatic 
tools  used  in  structural  iron  work,  repairs  and  similar 
work  where  compressed  air  is  required  in  different 
locations  for  short  periods  of  time.  For  portable  elec- 
tric-lighting purposes  the  oil  engine  (Fig.  89)  is  well 
adapted.  Electric  lighting  outfits  of  this  kind  have 
been  found  useful  for  operating  search-lights  for  mili- 
tary purposes  and  for  supplying  current  for  electric 
lighting  for  contractors,  etc.,  where  illumination  of  a 
portable  nature  is  required  for  a  short  period  only. 
The  portable  oil  engine  is  also  largely  used  for  farm 
work,  such  as  operating  threshing  machines,  etc. 

In  all  cases  these  engines  are  required  to  be  frequent- 
ly removed  from  place  to  place,  and  therefore 
must  be  as  light  as  possible  in  design,  but  must  be  of 
such  substantial  construction  that  they  can  be  trans- 
ported from  place  to  place  over  rough,  uneven  roads, 
and  all  provision  for  operation  in  the  open  air  must  be 
made.  In  Europe  the  portable  engine  is  generally  con- 
structed somewhat  differently  to  the  ordinary  fixed 


PORTABLE  ENGINES.  2OI 


engine.  The  heavy  cast-iron  bed-plats  used  in  fixed 
engines  is  replaced  with  light  steel  construction,  which 
considerably  reduces  the  weight.  This  type  of  con- 
struction is  shown  in  Fig.  89,  and  while  it  is  somewhat 
more  expensive  than  those  portable  engines  composed 
of  the  fixed  engine  without  base-plate  bolted  to  steel 
or  wooden  truck,  the  advantage  of  lightness  is  gained 
as  well  as  facility  in  transportation. 

In  the  United  States  the  portable  engines  are  more 
generally  composed  of  the  standard  fixed  engine 
placed  on  steel  or  timber  truck.  This  outfit  is  cheaper 
in  cost  than  that  of  the  special  construction  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  portable  engine  is  often  required  to  operate  in 
localities  where  running  water  is  not  available,  and 
therefore  it  must  be  self-contained  as  regards  the  cool- 
ing of  the  cylinder.  An  important  feature  of  this  out- 
fit is,  therefore,  the  cooling-water  apparatus.  In  order 
that  only  a  small  amount  of  water  may  be  used,  dif- 
ferent devices  have  been  constructed  for  rapidly  cool- 
ing a  small  amount  of  water.  Such  device  in  the 
Hornsby-Akroyd  consists  of  a  gradirwork  placed  in- 
side the  circular  chamber,  seen  in  Fig.  89,  placed  in 
the  front  of  the  engine.  The  water  is  circulated  around 
the  cylinder  of  the  engine  by  a  small  recip- 
rocating pump  operated  from  the  cam-shaft,  and  after 
passing  through  the  cylinder  and  taking  up  the  heat 
is  delivered  to  the  upper  part  of  this  chamber  and  flows 
down  a  wooden  gradirwork.  A  draft  of  air  is  at  the 
same  time  induced  by  the  exhaust  emitted  above,  which 


202  OIL  ENGINES. 

rapidly  cools  the  water  as  it  trickles  down  the 
slats  of  the  gradirwork.  For  a  20  H.  P.  engine  only 
about  30  to  40  gallons  of  water  are  required. 

Another  device  for  cooling  the  water  is  that  com- 
posed of  trays  over  which  the  water  flows  while  a 


FIG.  90. 

draft  of  air  is  induced  in  the  same  way  as  above  men- 
tioned. 

An  engine  equipped  with  this  cooling  device  is 
shown  in  Fig.  90,  as  made  by  Crossley  Bros.,  Man- 
chester, England. 

Another  type  of  portable  engine  is  that  shown  in 
Fig.  91,  consisting  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine.  This 


PORTABLE  ENGINES.  2O3 

is  the  standard  fixed  engine  placed  on  a  truck,  the  cool- 
ing water  being  supplied  from  a  tank  in  front  of  the 
engine. 

As  the  internal  combustion  engine  cannot  be  bal- 
anced as  effectually  as  the  steam  engine,  greater  vibra- 
tion of  the  engine  has  to  be  overcome  in  holding  it  in 


place.  An  important  feature  of  the  portable  engine, 
therefore,  is  the  chocking  device  which  is  required  to 
hold  it  rigidly  in  position  when  in  operation.  In  some 
engines  simply  a  wooden  chock  is  used,  placed  each 
side  of  the  wheel  and  drawn  together,  holding  the  wheels 
from  moving.  A  very  effective  device  is  that  composed 
of  four  adjustable  struts,  each  having  turnbuckle  fitting 


204 


OIL   ENGINES. 


into  a  flat  timber  plank  placed  on  the  ground  length- 
wise under  the  engine  and  protruding  from  each  end. 
When  it  is  desired  to  hold  the  engine  in  position, 


the  struts,  placed  at  each  end  of  truck,  are  length- 
ened  by   means   of   the   turnbuckle,    thus   taking   the 


PORTABLE  I-:.\(,I.M:S.  "205 

weight  off  the  wheels.  By  this  means  the  engine  is 
held  as  rigidly  as  when  on  a  concrete  foundation,  and 
without  movement.  When  it  is  required  to  remove  the 
engine  the  struts  are  shortened  by  simply  unscrewing 
until  the  weight  is  taken  up  by  the  wheels.  The  wear 
on  the  wheels  due  to  the  continuous  vibration  of  the 
engine  is  thus  avoided,  and  the  wheels  can  consequent- 
ly be  lighter  in  construction. 

A  portable  air-compressing  outfit  is  shown  in  Fig. 
92.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  it 
is  composed  of  the  oil  engine,  which  operates  the  air- 
compressor  by  a  gearing,  the  air  receiver  being  placed 
beneath  the  frame  of  the  truck,  while  the  cooling-water 
device  is  placed  lengthwise  with  the  air  compressor. 

An  oil  traction  engine  is  shown  at  Figure  c)2a,  in 
which  the  ordinary  frame  and  truck  of  the  steam  trac- 
tion engine  is  used,  the  boiler  being  replaced  by  an 
oil  engine. 

The  engine  shown  in  the  illustration  has  two  cylin- 
ders placed  at  an  angle  to  each  other,  the  connecting 
rods  operating  on  one  crank-pin,  the  power  from  the 
crank-shaft  being  transmitted  by  gearing  to  the  road- 
wheels.  The  cooling  of  the  water  is  effected  somewhat 
similarly  as  with  the  portable  engine.  This  type 
of  engine,  made  by  Messrs.  R.  Hornsby  &  Sons, 
Grantham,  England,  after  very  severe  tests  recently 
received  a  first  prize  of  £1,000  from  the  British  War 
Department. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES. 

THE  higher  thermal  efficiency  of  the  gas  engine  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  steam  engine  and  its  adap- 
tability to  use  the  poorer  and  cheaply  produced  gases 
made  in  the  producer  plant,  the  Mond  gas  plant,  as  well 
as  the  gases  given  off  from  blast  furnaces,  etc.,  has  re- 
sulted in  its  development  and  manufacture  in  units  as 
high  as  5000  H.  P. 

The  "oil  gas"  producer,  an  apparatus  for  furnishing 
gas  produced  from  vegetable  and  mineral  oils,  is  also 
used  in  connection  with  the  gas  engine ;  and  also,  as 
described  hereafter,  the  apparatus  developed  by  C.  C. 
Moore  &  Co.,  of  San  Francisco,  for  generating 
gas  from  crude  oil,  which  gases  are  furnished  to  the 
gas  engine.  Until  recently  the  oil  engine  self-con- 
tained, that  is,  requiring  no  outside  gas-making  appa- 
ratus, of  100  H.  P.  was  probably  the  largest  unit  made. 
The  oil  engine  up  to  500  H.  P.  is  now,  however,  being 
manufactured. 

The  production  of  great  quantities  of  petroleum  in 
Texas  and  California  chiefly  useful  for  fuel  purposes 
only,  and  which  can  be  procured  at  a  low  price  as  com- 
pared with  illuminating  oils,  has  enabled  the  oil  engine 
in  many  locations  to  compete  in  cost  of  installation  and 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  2O7 

operation  with  gas  engines  using  producer  and  other 
cheap  gas. 

With  the  smaller  size  oil  engines  simplicity  of  con- 
struction is  probably  the  most  important  feature,  as 
it  must  be  adapted  for  successful  operation  in  the  hands 
of  unskilled  attendants  and  be  free  from  all  delicate 
mechanisms  which  may  require  skilled  attention.  With 
the  larger  size  engines,  which  have  a  greater  earning 
capacity  and  which  allow  of  the  expense  of  a  skilled 
attendant,  simplicity  of  construction  is  not  so  important 
a  feature.  Mechanisms  which  may  frequently 
give  trouble  in  the  smaller  engines  when  in  the 
hands  of  unskilled  and  inexperienced  attendants  may 
in  the  hands  of  the  engineer  attending  to  the  larger 
engines  give  continuous  satisfaction. 

The  tendency  in  design  of  the  larger  size  gas  en- 
gines is  resorting  to  the  two-cycle  method  of  operation. 
Where  the  four-cycle  method  is  adhered  to  two  or 
more  cylinders  are  employed.  The  four-cycle  single- 
cylinder  engine,  as  already  explained  in  Chapter  L, 
obtains  an  impulse  once  in  two  revolutions,  and 
consequently  during  the  three  idle  strokes  of  the  piston 
the  power  and  speed  must  be  maintained  by  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  fly-wheels,  necessarily  enormous  in  an 
engine  of  100  H.  P.  or  over  for  the  power  obtained, 
in  comparison  with  the  fly-wheel  of  a  steam  engine  of 
the  same  capacity.  With  the  two-cycle  engine,  in 
which  an  impulse  is  obtained  each  revolution  of  the 
crank-shaft,  double  the  power  is  developed  as  compared 
with  the  four-cycle  engine  of  the  same  size.  The  me- 
chanical efficiency  is  increased,  owing  to  the  reduced 


2C>8  OIL  ENGINES. 

weight  of  the  fly-wheels,  and  the  weight  and  cost  of  the 
engine  per  H.  P.  is  curtailed. 

The  difficulty  of  procuring  proper  combustion  in  the 
two-cycle  oil  engine,  more  essential  where  crude  oil  is 
used  than  where  gas  or  gasoline  is  the  fuel,  is  not  yet 
entirely  overcome. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  the  larger  size  oil 
engines,  to  compete  with  the  gas  engine  in  cost  of  fuel, 
can  do  so  only  when  a  cheap  grade  of  oil  is  used  as 
fuel.  To  use  such  fuel,  it  is  imperative  that  proper 
combustion  takes  place  in  the  cylinder. 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  the  relative  cost  of  oper- 
ation of  the  steam  engine,  the  gas  engine  and  the  oil 
engine  of,  say,  50,  100  and  200  H.  P.  As  the  cost  of 
fuel  varies  in  different  localities  according  to  the  cost  of 
transportation,  etc.,  this  cannot  be  done  to  suit  all  cases. 
The  following  table,  however,  shows  the  relative  cost 
of  installing  and  operating  a  steam,  gas  and  oil  engine 
plant  of  50  to  200  H.  P.  The  cost  of  the  plant  includes 
cost  of  land,  building  of  engine  and  boiler  house,  foun- 
dations, smoke-stack,  etc.,  and  all  auxiliary  apparatus. 
The  cost  of  producer  plant,  and  the  cost  of  oil  storage 
tanks  and  cost  of  apparatus  for  handling  fuel  is  also  in- 
cluded. It  will  be  noted  that  the  cost  of  water  supply 
has  in  each  instance  been  neglected.  This  is  done  be- 
cause the  amount  of  water  required  would  be  approx- 
imately the  same  with  each  type;  possibly  a  saving  in 
.  favor  of  the  oil  and  gas  engine  would  in  many  instal- 
lations be  effected.  The  figures  must  be  modified  to 
suit  the  actual  cost  of  fuel  in  a  locality  differing  from 
those  given.  The  saving  favorable  to  the  gas-engine 


—  •  5 

wvs  f0'  'Id    ^   "^   ! 

1 

|l| 

«-i  W.     «  OO    "  \O           O           O*^          N 

L*  1^  ^  w    a    •          *          • 
N   ^     •    ioir>       en      co  r^       H 
w  O    *5                            en 

IPl 

OOO^O        Q        OO'cn 
ONOO^O        O        mr>«       TJ- 

§| 
H 

2  ?  ?°'  Is   ^  ™i-  « 

| 

£»£ 

3  S  M 

OOuc*-^r>-        en       xnm       oo 

Sl«f 

T+-      .       .      •      Q      .                           .                  O 

«co_go8£-      «      2o      N 

4) 

o'| 

H 

^tfl  s  !|  f 

8 

i! 

^?-}4  s  a§  § 

flit 

cc  s  =J2 

•3    « 

os^>-°o      o      go      co 

QOUQ^^m       r*«       Oco        c> 

ake  Horsepower. 

c 

I 

0 

f 

l§  *"*"  ;i  ^8^3^5^1 

^  •«     ^i  ».;   :  S  .     ^    •  w    •  S      « 

5  ^     K  *  S      S3      o3    :  u    :  ^    | 

UlX8-?    ?    ^s^: 

g>ii^S     ^5.5      <u     ^r^-.pncq: 

!^1  rfp;  *  S!4i*U  ! 

||.i    g'"S     "-I-1!8  i 

cc 

£ 

u         fej?    £    O    O    wo 

210 


OIL  ENGINES. 


installation  due  to  the  recovery  of  by-products  which 
is  effected  with  the  Mond  gas  plant  is  neglected,  and 
should  be  taken  account  of  where  this  system  can  be 


used.  The  steam  turbine,  it  will  be  noted,  is  not  men- 
tioned in  this  classification,  the  steam  engine  consid- 
ered being  the  reciprocating  type. 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  211 

THE  MIETZ  &  WEISS  two-cycle  oil  engine  has  al- 
ready been  described.  An  engine  of  this  type  of  60 
H.  P.  is  shown  at  Fig.  93.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  con- 
sists of  two  smaller  engines  coupled  together  and 
placed  on  one  base-plate.  Each  engine  is  self-contained 
and,  if  necessary,  can  be  operated  alone  by  simply  un- 
coupling the  connecting-rod,  etc. 

THE  HORNSBY-AKROYD  engine  of  125  H.  P.  is  shown 
in  Fig.  94.  This  engine  operates  on  the  four-cycle  sys- 
tem. Its  proportions  are  necessarily  large  as  com- 
pared with  the  two-cycle  type,  and,  owing  to  the  three 
idle  strokes  present  when  the  Otto  cycle  is  used,  the 
fly-wheels  must  be  very  heavy  to  obtain  even  running. 
The  advantage,  however,  is  gained  of  obtaining  a  good 
combustion,  which  is  not  always  the  case  with  the  two- 
cycle  engine,  and  consequently  crude  oil  can  be  satis- 
factorily consumed  in  this  engine.  The  deposit  of 
carbon  when  using  crude  oil  is  abstracted  from  the 
vaporizer  through  the  hole  in  the  back  of  that  chamber 
shown  in  the  illustration,  and  which  is  covered  by  a 
flange.  These  engines  are  now  made  up  to  500  H.  P. 
by  R.  Hornsby  &  Sons,  Grantham,  England. 

A  sectional  view  of  the  cylinder  is  shown  at  Fig.  95, 
in  which  will  be  noted  the  water- jacketed  piston  and 
the  method  of  supplying  the  water  to  it.  In  other  re- 
spects this  engine  operates  in  a  similar  method  to  the 
smaller  sizes  already  described.  They  are  started  by 
compressed  air  supplied  from  a  reservoir,  the  air  en- 
tering the  cylinder  by  means  of  valves  and  valve-box 
connected  to  the  reservoir  already  described  on  page 
105.  In  the  larger  engines  water-jacketing  of  the  pis- 


212  OIL  ENGINES. 

ton  is  required  in  addition  to  the  water- jacketing  of 
the  cylinder  to  preserve  the  proper  temperature  neces- 
sary for  lubrication,  and  to  prevent  undue  expansion 
of  the  piston  being  exposed  to  the  greater  volume  of 
gases  in  the  cylinder.  The  water  is  introduced  by  a 
sliding  tube  to  the  piston,  with  which  it  reciprocates. 


THE  DIESEL  ENGINE. 

The  Diesel  engines  are  built  by  the  American  Diesel 
Engine  Co.,  at  Providence,  R.  I.  They  are  also  built 
by  several  manufacturers  in  Europe,  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  Germany.  The  Diesel  engine,  as  at 
present  made  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  is  shown  at  Fig.  96.  The 
engine  here  described  is  the  type  built  by  the  makers 
under  American  and  Canadian  patents. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Diesel  engine  is  the 
high  thermal  efficiency  obtained  and  the  consequent 
low  consumption  of  fuel.  The  high  thermal  efficiency, 
whiclT  it  is  claimed  is  38%,  is  due  to  the  high  com- 
pression of  the  air  in  the  cylinder,  to  the  exceedingly 
small  clearance  in  the  cylinder,  which  is  approximately 
J%  only  of  the  total  cylinder  volume,  and  to  the  slow 
combustion  of  the  fuel  which  is  effected  by  the  method 
of  injecting  the  fuel  peculiar  to  the  Diesel  engine. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  illustrations, 
this  engine  is  of  the  vertical  type  and  is  of  very 
substantial  construction.  The  cylinder  walls,  cylinder 
head  and  valve  chambers  are  water-jacketed.  The  en- 
closed crank-chamber  is  advantageously  made  readily 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES. 


2I3 


accessible  by  means  of  removable  plates  on  either  side 
of  it. 

Fig.  97  shows  in  plan  and  partly  in  section  the  Diesel 
engine  of  the  three-cylipder  type.  It  is  also  made 
with  single  and  double  cylinder. 


FIG.  96. 


214 


OIL  ENGINES. 


A  sectional  end  view  is  shown  at  Fig1.  98.      The 
crank-shaft,  or  main  bearings,  are  adjustable  by  means 


FIG.  98. 


(To  face  />.  214.) 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  215 

of  wedges  and  screws,  as  shown.  The  piston  is  made 
as  long  as  possible,  in  order  to  give  a  maximum  bear- 
ing surface,  and  is  fitted  with  steel  snap-rings.  The 
connecting-rods  are  of  the  marine  type,  with  adjus- 
table bearings  at  both  ends.  The  valve  motions  are 
operated  from  the  cam-shaft  inside  the  enclosed  frame, 
which  is  actuated  by  gearing  from  the  crank-shaft. 
The  engine  operates  on  the  "Otto,"  or  four-cycle,  prin- 
ciple. The  air  supply  for  supporting  combustion  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinders  through  the  air  inlet  valves 
placed  in  the  housings  to  one  side  of  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  head.  (See  Fig.  99.)  The  fuel  to  the  cylinders 
is  supplied  by  a  separate  oil  pump  for  each  cylinder. 
The  oil  pump  is  operated  from  a  shaft  geared  to  the 
cam-shaft.  The  method  of  operation  is  as  follows: 
The  engine  is  first  started  by  means  of  compressed 
air,  which  is  supplied  from  an  auxiliary  air  receiver 
suitably  connected  to  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  start- 
ing valve  operated  by  a  starting  cam,  thrown  into  ac- 
tion by  hand,  before  starting.  By  this  means  com- 
pressed air  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  and  the  piston 
is  moved  forward  for  one  or  two  revolutions.  Simul- 
taneously compression  of  the  air  in  the  other  cylinders 
takes  place,  which  is  sufficient  to  ignite  the  charge  of 
oil  in  them.  As  soon  as  the  ignitions  take  place  the 
starting  cam  is  automatically  thrown  out  of  action,  the 
exhaust  cam  being  simultaneously  thrown  into 
action.  The  admission  valve  for  fuel  and  air  under 
pressure  is  shown  in  Fig.  99.  As  will  be  seen,  the 
valve  spindle  is  surrounded  by  a  series  of  brass  wash- 
ers perforated  with  small  holes,  being  parallel  to  the 


2l6 


OIL   ENGINES. 


spindle.  The  fuel  before  entering  the  cylinder  occu- 
pies the  cavities  in  and  between  these  washers  as  it  is 
delivered  from  the  fuel  pump.  Compressed  air  is  in- 
troduced behind  the  oil  inlet  and  at  the  opening  of  the 


FIG.  99. 


admission  valve  the  oil  is  sprayed  into  the  cylinder.  The 
fuel  enters  the  cylinder  only  after  the  compression 
stroke  is  completed  and  when  the  piston  is  beginning 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  217 

to  descend.  The  compression  in  the  cylinder  caused 
by  the  previous  up-stroke  of  the  piston  reaches  a 
pressure  of  450  to  525  Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  resulting 
temperature  approaches  1000°  Fahr.,  which  is  more 
than  sufficient  to  ignite  the  oil  vapor.  The  fuel  valve 
remains  open  about  one-tenth  of  the  period  of  the  ex- 
pansion stroke.  The  amount  of  fuel  entering  depends 
upon  the  action  of  the  governor.  Air  in  excess  of  that 
required  to  burn  the  fuel  is  introduced  into  the  cylin- 
der, and  accordingly  perfect  combustion  takes  place. 
The  speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by  means  of  the 
governor  acting  on  the  by-pass  valves  (one  for  each 
fuel  pump).  The  by-pass  oil  valves  are  opened  by 
arms  pivoted  on  a  shaft  raised  or  lowered  by  the  gov- 
ernor, and  operate  as  follows :  If  only  a  small  amount 
of  fuel  is  required  in  the  cylinder  to  overcome  the  load, 
the  governor  holds  the  by-pass  valve  open  for  a  length- 
ened period  and  a  greater  amount  of  the  oil  is  allowed  to 
return  to  the  suction  pipe,  while,  if  the  load  is  greater, 
and  consequently  more  fuel  is  required  in  the  cylinder 
to  overcome  it,  the  by-pass  valves  open  for  a  relatively 
shorter  period  and  then  less  oil  returns  to  the  suction 
pipe,  a  greater  amount  of  fuel  passing  to  the  cylinder. 
By  this  method  of  governing  a  very  close  regulation 
of  speed  is  effected. 

Indicator  card  from  this  engine  is  shown  at  Fig. 

100. 

The  Diesel  engine  has  created  great  interest  in 
engineering  circles  the  world  over,  and  many  tests 
have  been  made  of  it.  Professor  Denton,  of  the 
Stevens  Institute,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  1898  conducted 


2l8  OIL  ENGINES. 

a  series  of  tests  on  this  engine,  and  according  to  his  re- 
port of  those  tests  the  consumption  of  fuel  was  0.534 
Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour  at  full  load,  and  at  less  than 
half  load  0.72  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour.  This  is 


FIG.  100. 

equivalent  to  a  thermal  efficiency  (on  the  I.  H.  P.)  of 
37.7  per  cent. 

The  following  is  the  heat-balance  table  as  shown 
by  Professor  Denton : 

PER  CENT. 
Heat  of  combustion  accounted  for  by  indicated 

power  37.2 

Removed  by  jacket 35.4 

Remainder    27.4 


Total  heat  of  combustion 100.0 

Another  type  of  the  Diesel  engine,  that  made  by  the 
manufacturers  in  Sweden,  is  shown  at  Fig.  101. 

The  following  tests  were  made  by  Prof.  Meyer  in 
1900  on  a  German  type  30  H.  P.  engine.  The 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES. 


219 


cylinder  11.8"  diam.,  18.1"  stroke,  air-pump  cylinder 
1.9"  diam.,  3.1"  stroke.  Air  was  taken  from  motor 
cylinder  at  a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres  and  com- 


pressed to  45  or  60  atmospheres.     Negative  work  in 
the  motor  cylinder  was  equivalent  to  5.66  H.  P.  at  181. 


OIL  ENGINES. 


R.  P.  M.  The  air  pump  was  not  indicated,  consequently 
the  effective  power  is  not  given.  The  mean  indicated 
pressure  at  normal  load  was  approximately  90  Ibs.  per 
square  inch.  The  exhaust  gases  were  invisible.  Two 
kinds  of  fuel  were  used,  American  petroleum,  specific 
gravity  0.79,  having  18,540  B.  T.  U.  per  lb.,  and 
Tegern  See  (Bavaria)  crude  oil,  specific  gravity 
0.789.* 

TABLE  VIII.— RESULTS  OP  TRIALS  OP  A  DIESEL  OIL  ENGINE 
(MEYER),  1900. 


American  Petroleum. 

Raw  Tegern  See  Oil. 

Load  on  Brake. 

Full 
Load. 

Nor- 
mal. 

% 
Load. 

Half 
Load. 

Nor- 
mal. 

H 

Load. 

Half 
Load. 

Revs,  per  minute  .... 
Brake    (or   actual) 
H.  P.,  metric  
Indicated   H.  P.  (mo- 
tor cyl.) 

177-4 
39-45 

48.2 
82 

0.48 
28 

181.1 
30.17 

39-52 
76 

o-45 
30 

184.0 
23.81 

33-io 
72 

0.48 
28 

183-3 
15-26 

25.02 
61 

o-57 
24 

l8l.2 
30.18 

40.96 

73 

0.47 
29.8 

181.8 
23-5 

33-0 
7i 

0.49 

185.0 
15-4 

26.4 

58 

0.57 

Mech.  efficiency  
Oil  used  per  B.  H.  P., 
per  hour  Ibs. 
Percentage  of  heat  ) 
of  oil  as  useful  > 
work  ) 

CRUDE  OIL  VAPORIZER. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  crude  oil  is  now  being  largely 
used  for  fuel.  In  many  instances  this  fuel  is  used,  be- 
ing vaporized  or  gasified  in  a  separate  apparatus  and 
is  then  consumed  in  the  ordinary  gas  engine.  This 

*"Gas  and  Petroleum  Engines."    By  Prof.  Wm.  Robinson. 
Second  edition.     Page  777. 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  221 

apparatus  is  separate  from  the  engine,  the  oil  being 
entirely  gasified  before  it  reaches  the  engine  cylinder. 
Such  vaporizing  apparatus  or  retorts  are  made  by  vari- 
ous manufacturers,  but  in  general  principle  they 
are  similar.  The  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases  from  the 
engine  is  utilized  to  heat  the  retort  into  which  the  oil 
is  introduced,  where  it  is  gasified. 

Mr.  Frank  H.  Bates  has  drawn  attention  to  these 
various  retorts,  which  usually  consist  of  a  cast-iron 
chamber  enclosing  an  inner  chamber,  also  of  cast  iron.* 
The  fuel  to  be  gasified  enters  the  inner  ribbed  chamber 
through  suitable  openings,  and  the  gas  is  drawn  from 
the  chamber  through  a  separate  connection  from  the 
inner  chamber  to  the  engine  cylinder.  The  exhaust 
gases  from  the  engine  are  connected  to  the  outer  cham- 
ber and  pass  around,  heating  the  inner  chamber  to  a 
temperature  necessary  for  vaporization.  Provision  is 
made  to  draw  off  the  residue  of  the  crude  oil,  which 
is  not  capable  of  vaporization,  and  provision  is  also 
made  to  cleanse  the  vaporizing  chamber  of  deposit  of 
carbon  and  other  solid  matter. 

In  the  "Economist"  retort  the  inner  ribbed  chamber, 
or  drum,  is  made  to  slowly  revolve,,  and,  the  ribs  be- 
ing spirally  shaped,  the  oil  is  propelled  from  end  to 
end  and  the  heat  is  then  equally  distributed  around  the 
inner  chamber.  In  service  where  the  load  is  fairly 
constant,  and  where  opportunity  to  cleanse  the  retort 
occasionally,  is  afforded,  these  retorts  have  given  ex- 
cellent results.  For  installations,  however,  such  as 
*See  Journal  of  Electricity,  Power  and  Gas,  Vol.  XIII., 
P-  5- 


222 


OIL  ENGINES. 


electric  railway  service,  or  where  the  load  varies  be- 
tween wide  limits  and  where  continuous  running  is 
imperative,  it  is  stated  that  difficulty  has  been  experi- 


FIG.  102. 


enced,  due  to  the  fluctuating  temperature  of  the  retort 
heated  by  the  exhaust  gases,  which  involves  improp- 
erly regulated  supply  of  vapor  to  the  cylinder.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty  with  varying  loads,  Messrs. 
C.  C.  Moore  &  Co.  have  developed  an  improved  sys- 
tem of  using  crude  oil  in  connection  with  gas  engines. 


FIG.  103. 

The  generator,  as  made  by  this  company,  is  shown  in 
Figs.  102  and  103,  in  which  are  shown  a  longitudinal 
elevation  of  the  generator,  end  elevation,  and  also  the 


LARGE-SIZED  ENGINES.  223 

generator  connected  up  to-  its  drainage  chamber  for 
the  automatic  removal  of  the  deposit.  It  will  be  noted 
from  Fig.  102  that  a  scraper  is  arranged  which  can  be 
moved  from  end  to  end  of  the  vaporizer  by  means  of 
the  hand  wheel.  This  scraper  is  shown  in  Fig.  105. 
The  oil  supply  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  thermostatic 
valve,  and  is  automatically  maintained  at  a  constant 
level  by  this  means.  The  method  of  operation  is  as 
follows : 

Oil  is  first  fed  into  the  vaporizing  chamber 
by  means  of  a  valve  until  the  level  in  both  tlTis 
chamber  and  in  the  oil  feed  device  is  a  little  above 
the  level  of  the  upper  drain  pipe.  A  heating  device  is 
then  inserted  into  the  exhaust  gas  passage,  heating  the 
vaporizing  chamber  to  about  300°  Fahr.  The  engine 
is  started  by  means  of  compressed  air,  and  when  in 
operation  air  heavily  charged  with  oil  vapor  passes 
through  the  nozzle  G,  Fig.  102,  to  the  engine  cylinder. 
The  exhaust  gases  from  the  engine  afterwards  furnish 
the  heat  necessary  to  maintain  the  vaporizer  at  a  proper 
temperature ;  these  gases'  pass  around  the  generator, 
and  thence  by  the  exhaust  pipe  to  the  roof.  The  tem- 
perature of  this  chamber  is  regulated  by  the  thermo- 
static valve,  which,  when  the  temperature  of  the  vapor- 
izer rises  too  high,  allows  the  exhaust  gases  to  be  by- 
passed from  the  vaporizer  and  pass  directly  to  the 
roof.  The  thermostatic  device  consists  of  an  alumi- 
num tube  inserted  directly  into  the  vapor  chamber, 
around  which  the  exhaust  gases  pass.  The  aluminum 
tube  is  closed  at  its  upper  end  and  is  attached  to  a  sys- 
tem of  levers  so  arranged  as  to  exaggerate  its  move- 


224  OIL    ENGINES. 

ment,  caused  by  the  variation  in  temperature.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  the  temperature  of  the  vaporizer 
chamber  rises  above  that  required,  the  expansion  of  the 
aluminum  tube  is  arranged  to  close  a  needle  valve, 
which  allows  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust  gases  from 
the  engine  to  lift  a  larger  valve,  thus  opening  a  pas- 
sage outside  the  vaporizer,  through  which  the  ex- 
haust passes  instead  of  entering  the  chamber  around 
the  vaporizing  retort.  By  this  means  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  retort  is  regulated  within  very  close  limits. 


FIG.  105. 


The  proper  level  of  the  liquid  fuel  to  be  vaporized 
is  regulated  by  an  automatic  ball  check  valve  placed 
in  the  chamber  marked  /,  Fig.  106,  through  which 
the  oil  passes  to  the  vaporizer.  A  relief  valve  is  in- 
serted in  the  supply  pump,  so  that  when  the  valve  to 
the  vaporizing  chamber  is  closed  the  fuel  can  by  this 
means  flow  back  to  the  tank.  The  retort  is  readily 
cleansed  by  means  of  the  scraper  already  referred  to, 
shown  in  Fig.  105,  which  is  operated  by  hand  period- 
ically. In  the  larger  size  installations  made  by  Messrs. 
C.  C.  Moore  &  Co.  more  extensive  equipment 
is  provided,  in  which  arrangement  is  made  to  utilize 
the  heat  rejected  by  the  exhaust  gases  and  also 


(To  face  p.  224.) 


LARGE-SIZED    ENGINES.  225 

the  heat  given  off  from  the  water  jacket,  and  in  which 
installations  the  residue  of  the  oil  is  partly  used  also. 
In  these  outfits  a  combination  of  oil  vapor  and  water 
gas  is  formed,  two  superheaters  being  added,  one  of 
which  is  heated  by  the  exhaust  gases,  in  which  part  of 
the  cooling  .water  issuing  from  the  water  jacket  is 
turned  into  steam ;  the  second  superheater  is  heated  by 
the  burning  of  residue  oil  in  connection  with  com- 
pressed air.  In  this  way,  it  is  stated,  steam  raised  to 
approximately  1600°  Fahr.  in  the  chamber  C,  Fig. 
106,  is  mingled  with  the  oil  vapor  forming  the  combi- 
nation of  oil  vapor  and  water  gas  referred  to.  By  the 
use  of  this  apparatus  a  greater  economy  is  effected  and 
a  greater  part  of  the  heat  of  the  fuel  utilized. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  accom- 
panying illustrations,  Fig.  106: 

The  three-cylinder  Westinghouse  gas  engine  of  the 
vertical  type  is  shown  at  A.  The  generator  by  which 
the  crude  oil  is  vaporized  is  shown  at  B.  The  super- 
heater (heated  by  residual  oil  burners)  is  marked  C. 
The  chamber  for  drainage  of  residuals  is  shown  at  D. 
H  is  an  air-compressor  operated  by  belt  from  the  en- 
gine crank-shaft.  7  is  the  automatic  oil  feed,  which 
maintains  the  proper  level  of  the  oil  in  the  generator. 
E,  E1  and  E2  are  the  air  storage  tanks  maintained 
at  a  pressure  of  160  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  F  is  the 
rotary  oil  pump  which  raises  the  fuel  from  the  storage 
tank  underground  to  the  vaporizer.  The  water-cir- 
culating pump  which  supplies  the  cooling  water  to 
the  cylinders  is  shown  at  G. 

A  separate  vaporizing  attachment  for  using  crude 


226  OIL    ENGINES. 

oil  of  the  type  already  mentioned  is  shown  at  Fig.  108. 
The  vaporizer  is  separate  from  the  engine,  being  at- 
tached to  the  gas  or  gasoline  engine,  where  it  is  re- 
quired to  use  crude  oil  as  fuel  instead  of  gas  or  gaso- 
line. The  outfit  shown  is  the  Fairbanks-Morse  gas  or 
gasoline  engine,  which  has  attached  to  it  the  outside 
apparatus  for  vaporizing  the  oil.  the  vaporizer  being  a 
cast-iron  chamber  into  which  the  liquid  oil  is  injected. 
This  chamber  is  heated  while  in  operation  by  the  ex- 
haust gases.  Before  starting  it  is  necessary  to  use  an 
outside  lamp,  in  order  that  the  chamber  may  become 
heated  to  the  temperature  required  to  vaporize  the  fuel. 
The  oil  is  mixed  with  air  drawn  into  the  vaporizer  and 
becomes  vaporized  in  this  chamber,  and  is  drawn  there- 
from into  the  cylinder  in  the  usual  way. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  the  engine 
shown  at  Fig.  108  is  geared  directly  up  to  hoisting 
drum.  These  outfits  are  very  largely  used  for  mining 
and  similar  purposes,  where  hoisting  engines  can  be 
readily  utilized. 

A  new  type  of  oil  engine,  made  in  sizes  from  85 
H.  P.  upwards,  is  shown  at  Fig.  109.  This  engine  is 
manufactured  and  patented  by  the  De  La  Vergne  Ma- 
chine Company  and  is  known  as  their  Type  FH  oil 
engine.  It  operates  on  the  four-cycle  principle,  and  is 
single  acting,  of  the  horizontal  type,  and  is  furnished 
in  either  single  or  twin  cylinder  units.  The  largest 
size  which  this  company  has  furnished  hitherto  is  250 
H.  P.  twin  cylinder,  but  engines  of  larger  size  are  in 
course  of  construction. 


r 


LARGE-SIZED   ENGINES.  22/ 

This  engine  is  equipped  with  a  two-stage  air  com- 
pressor shown  in  the  sectional  view  at  Fig.  109,  which  is 
operated  directly  from  the  crank-shaft  by  an  eccentric. 
The  compressed  air  is  used  for  spraying  purposes  and 
is  injected  into  the  vaporizer  and  combustion  space 
with  the  fuel,  thus  insuring  complete  spraying  of  the 
fuel  as  it  enters  the  vaporizer.  Briefly  stated,  the 
method  of  operation  of  this  engine  is  as  follows : 

At  the  first  stroke  of  the  piston  outwards,  air  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  an  inlet  valve  on  the 
top  of  the  breech  end  or  valve  chamber.  On  the  sec- 
ond or  inward  stroke  of  the  piston,  compression  takes 
place.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  indicator  card  at  Fig. 
112  the  maximum  pressure  of  compression  is  260  Ibs. 
As  the  process  of  compression  is  completed  the  fuel 
(fuel  or  crude  oil  as  heavy  as  14°  Beaume)  is  in- 
jected into  the  vaporizer  and  mingles  with  the  com- 
pressed air  already  referred  to. 

The  spray  valve  shown  in  section  Fig.  70  is  posi- 
tively controlled  by  an  independent  cam  on  the  cam- 
shaft. The  compressed  air  furnished  by  the  two-stage 
air  compressor  is  delivered  at  the  sprayer  at  about  400 
Ibs.  pressure.  Only  a  small  amount  of  air  (about  2% 
of  the  cylinder  volume)  is  delivered  at  each  injection. 
Immediately  the  fuel  enters  the  combustion  space  and 
comes  in  contact  with  the  air  heated  by  the  process 
of  compression  together  with  the  heated  walls  of  the 
vaporizing  chamber  ignition  takes  place,  and  on  the 
third  or  outward  stroke  of  the  piston  expansion  begins. 
The  maximum  pressure,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  indi- 
cator card,  is  slightly  over  400  Ibs.  At  a  point  85%  of 


228 


OIL   ENGINES. 


the  stroke,  the  exhaust  valve  is  opened,  allowing  the 
products  of  combustion  to  escape. 

The  vaporizer  of  this  engine  is  a  rough  gun-iron  cast- 
ing, somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Type  2  described  on 
page  8,  but  without  contracted  opening.  The  oil  pump 
is  operated  from  the  cam-shaft  and  has  the  length  of  its 
stroke  varied  by  the  governor  in  accordance  with  the 
load  requirements. 


ttSSYJSt 


OIL   COMSUMPTlON     OP 
20  x34.'/2   TyPE     FH    OIL. 


DELRVERSME      FUEL     OIL. 


BEUTED      TO       IOO 


D.C.GeiNEfvrrOR 


CflRO    EL..CO 


.__—  -"^~ 

^*         H>     La 


'/A  Vz  %.  Vl  OF    FULL  I-OBD 

FIG  in. 

This  engine  is  of  the  best  design  in  every  detail  and 
of  very  heavy  construction.  The  marked  economy  is 
shown  by  diagram,  Fig.  in,  from  which  it  will  be  seen 
that  a  fuel  consumption  as  low  as  0.393  ^°-  of  crude 
oil  per  actual  horse-power  per  hour  has  been  obtained. 

Tests  have  also  shown  the  fuel  economy  to  be  as  low 
as  0.437  H>.  at  half  load.  (See  page  248.) 

The  cams  operating  the  air  and  exhaust  valves  are 


LARGE-SIZED   ENGINES. 


229 


accurately  designed  and  machined.  The  engine  is  al- 
most silent  in  operation.  The  starting  is  effected  in  the 
ordinary  way  by  means  of  compressed  air,  as  explained 
on  page  105.  The  vaporizing  chamber  is  heated  for  a 
few  minutes  before  starting  by  means  of  an  external 
lamp  in  a  similar  way  as  with  Type  2  engines  (page  8). 

The  regulation  of  speed  is  effected  by  a  Hartung 
governor  operated  by  gears  from  the  cam-shaft,  which 
actuates  through  levers  directly  on  the  oil  supply  pump, 
lengthening  or  shortening  the  stroke  in  accordance  with 
the  requirements  of  the  load. 

At  this  time  only  a  few  installations  of  this  engine 
have  been  made,  but  the  makers  state  that  under  con- 
tinued and  exhaustive  tests  made  by  independent  en- 
gineers results  even  better  than  those  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying diagram  have  been  obtained. 

OIL.      EINGIME      T>PE         F  H 


>«D      CflRD       HEP      100    IBS     PER      3Q.  IN 


FIG.  112. 


' 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
FUELS. 

THE  fuel  to  be  used  in  the  type  of  engines  here  dis- 
cussed is  frequently  a  matter  of  inquiry,  and  ac- 
cordingly a  brief  description  of  the  various  fuels  used 
is  given. 

The  Texas  oil,  which  hitherto  has  not  been  so  fully 
treated  of  elsewhere  is  discussed  more  fully  than  the 
other  fuels. 

The  supply  of  petroleum  is  produced  chiefly  in  the 
United  States  of  America  and  in  Russia,  while  it  is 
also  found  in  many  other  countries  in  small  quantities. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  the  United  States  in  the  Cen- 
tral Eastern  States,  notably  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
Ohio  and  West  Virginia ;  in  Texas  in  the  region 
around  Beaumont  and  Corsicana,  in  California  chiefly 
in  the  Kern  County,  Coalinga,  Los  Angeles,  pro- 
ducing fields.  In  Russia  oil  fields  are  found  around 
Baku  and  in  the  range  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains. 

Paraffin  or  shale  oil,  a  fuel  produced  by  a  slow  proc- 
ess of  distillation  of  "shale"  and  bituminous  coal,  is 
also  produced  in  Scotland. 

Crude  petroleum  as  it  issues  or  is  pumped  from  the 
earth  contains  a  variety  of  hydrocarbons  of  different 
characteristics,  and  after  its  sediment  has  settled  it  is 


FUELS. 


23I 


subjected  to  a  process  of  refining  known  as  fractional 
distillation,  by  which  process  the  various  hydrocarbons 
are  separated  and  are  afterwards  condensed  into  the  dif- 
ferent products  known  in  commerce  as  benzine,  gaso- 
line, naphtha,  being  the  lighter  products,  having  a  flash- 
point below  73°  Fahr.  Next  the  illuminating  oils,  such 
as  W.  W.  150°  kerosene,  White  Rose  and  other  brands 
of  a  similar  composition,  are  obtained,  having  a  flash- 
point above  73°  Fahr.  The  next  product  is  gas  oil,  or 
fuel  oil,  used  largely  for  gas-making  and  also  as  fuel  in 
internal  combustion  engines,  having  a  flash-point  of 
about  190°.  Lubricating  oils,  paraffin,  wax,  vaseline, 
etc.,  are  afterwards  procured,  the  residue  being  only  a 
heavy  liquid  sometimes  used  for  fuel. 

The  fuels  used  chiefly  in  the  engines  here  discussed, 
as  already  stated,  are  the  crude  oils,  the  illuminating 
oils  and  the  fuel  or  gas  oil. 

CRUDE  OILS. 

In  the  accompanying  tables  will  be  found  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  crude  oils  produced  from  the  different 
Russian  oil  fields,  the  American  oil  fields  of  the  Alle- 
gheny region,  as  well  as  the  oils  produced  in  Texas, 
California  and  elsewhere. 

The  Russian  crude  oil  is  heavier  than  the  American 
product  found  in  the  Allegheny  region,  the  average 
specific  gravity  of  the  former  being  .85,  that  of  the  lat- 
ter being  .79. 

Texas  crude  oil,  many  samples  of  which  have  been 
used  by  the  writer  in  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  oil  engine, 


232  OIL  ENGINES. 

is  a  dark,  heavy  liquid  having  a  specific  gravity  vary- 
ing from  .861  to  .915,  the  flash-point  (open  method)  be- 
ing 180°  to  195°. 

An  analysis  of  this  oil  by  Messrs.  Clifford  Richard- 
son and  E.  C.  Wallace,*  taken  from  the  Lucas  well, 
Beaumont,  Texas,  1901,  in  which  the  following,  it  may 
be  mentioned,  were  the  methods  of  examination,  has 
been  made. 

The  specific  gravity  was  determined  in  a  picnometer 
at  25°  C.,  the  flash-point  was  taken  in  a  New  York 
State  oil  tester,  the  refractive  index  with  an  Abbe  re- 
fractometer  at  25°  C.  The  viscosity  represents  the 
number  of  seconds  required  for  the  oils  to  flow  from 
a  loo  c.c.  pipette,  according  to  the  P.  R.  R.  specifica- 
tions. Volatility  was  obtained  by  allowing  20  grm. 
of  crude  petroleum  to  be  heated  in  an  open  dish  2\ 
inches  diameter,  \\  inches  deep,  to  various  tempera- 
tures for  various  periods  of  time,  or  until  the  loss  be- 
came small  enough  to  neglect.  The  volatilization  then 
goes  on  below  the  boiling  point.  The  vapor  not  being 
confined,  there  is  no  "cracking."  The  distillation  in 
Engler's  Flask  was  carried  out  in  the  usual  way,  the 
distillate  between  150°  and  300°  C.  representing  the 
burning  oil  available  commercially. 

For  the  purpose  of  fractional  distillation,  about  half 
a  litre  of  oil  was  distilled  in  a  litre  flask  of  the  Engler 
shape  (but  larger)  supported  on  a  six-mesh  iron  cloth 
surrounded  by  loose  bricks  covered  with  asbestos 
board.  The  distillate  was  condensed  in  an  air-con- 

*See  "Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,"  Vol. 
20,  No.  7. 


FUELS.  233 

denser  3  feet  long  connected  with  a  Bruhl's  receiver, 
where  a  vacuum  of  20  mm.  could  be  maintained.  All 
joints  were  mercury  sealed  or  of  solid  glass ;  access  of 
air  or  decomposition  was  prevented.  A  current  of  carbon 
dioxide  was  conducted  to  the  bottom  of  the  distilling 
flask  to  agitate  the  oil  and  remove  air  from  the  appa- 
ratus. The  oil  was  heated  by  a  ring-flame  Fletcher 
burner,  and  distilled  at  ordinary  pressure  as  long  as 
there  were  no  signs  of  cracking.  As  soon  as  any  de- 
composition was  recognized,  or  the  temperature  had 
reached  a  high  figure,  the  oil  was  cooled  and  the  vacuum 
made.  The  difference  in  boiling  point  at  at- 
mospheric pressure  and  at  20  mm.  for  hydrocarbons, 
boiling  under  760  mm.  at  about  320°  C.,  is  117°,  a 
distillate  coming  over  at  317°  at  atmospheric  pressure 
beginning  to  distil  at  200°  in  a  vacuum  of  20  mm. 
The  distillates  were  then  treated  twice  with  an  excess 
of  sulphuric  acid,  washed  with  dilute  soda,  dried  over 
sodium,  and  then  determinations  repeated.  Finally, 
one  of  the  distillates  was  treated  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  volumes  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acid,  washed, 
boiled  with  sodium  and  examined. 

EXAMINATION  OF  RESIDUES. — The  residues  left  after 
evaporation  in  the  open  dish,  or  from  either  of  the 
methods  of  distillation,  are  characteristic  and  of  value 
in  determining  the  nature  of  any  petroleum,  and  as  to 
whether  it  has  a  so-called  asphaltic  or  paraffin  base. 

ULTIMATE  ANALYSES. — These  were  made  with  the 
precautions  which  have  been  found  necessary  in  burn- 
ing the  polymethylene  hydrocarbons,  which  very  read- 
ily escape  complete  combustion. 


234 


OIL  ENGINES. 


Beaumont  oil  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
unsaturated  hydrocarbons  removable  by  sulphuric  acid 
than  either  Pennsylvania  or  Ohio  petroleum.  The 
Beaumont  oil  has  a  high  sulphur  content  and  carries, 
as  it  comes  from  the  wells,  a  large  amount  of  hydro- 
gen sulphide  in  solution.  This  gas  has  previously  been 
observed  in  solution  in  petroleum,  but  not  in  so  large 
quantity  as  at  Beaumont.  The  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
is  largely  lost  on  standing,  and  more  completely  on 
blowing  air  through  it.  After  such  treatment  the  oil 
contained  1.75  per  cent,  of  sulphur  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phur derivatives  of  the  hydrocarbons. 

A  comparison  of  the  ultimate  compositions  of  the 
Texas  oil  with  other  oils  used  for  fuel  shows  that,  while 
not  equal  to  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  oils,  owing  to  the 
low  carbon  and  high  sulphur,  it  is  not  inferior  to  the 
California  petroleums  in  any  marked  degree. 
TABLE  IX.— ULTIMATE  COMPOSITION. 


Beaumont. 

Penna.* 

Ohio.t 

Carbon  

85.03 

86.10 

85  oo 

Hydrogen  

12.30 

13  .  90 

13.80 

Sulphur  

i-75 

0.06 

0.60 

Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  
Loss  on  treatment  with  excess  of 

0.92 

0.60 

H2SO4.    (Sulphuric  acid)  

39-o 

21  .0 

30.0 

'Engler.  t  Mabery,  Noble  Co. 

TABLE  X.— BEAUMONT  OIL. 


Specific  gravity  25°  C  
Flash  
Viscosity,  P.R.R.  pipette.. 

0.912 
Ord.  Temp. 

0.914 

110° 

75" 

0.8014 
Ord. 

42" 

0.8293 
Ord. 

37" 

TABLE  XI.— VOLATILITY  IN  OPEN-  DISH. 


Per  Cent. 

Per 
Cent. 

Per 
Cent. 

Per 

Cent. 

no°  C.,  230°  F.  :  7  hours.  ... 
162°  C.,  325°  F.     7      "     

19.19 
31-31 

20.0 
27.0 

41-2 
43-0 

47-3 
58.0 

205°  C.,  400°  F.     7      "      

57-57 

49-0 

59-0 

68.0 

To  constant  weight  — 

105°  C.,  221°  F.  :   42  hours 

48.0 

48.0 

48.7 

58.7 

162°  C.,  325°  F.:    70      " 

64.0* 

57-0 

61.0 

71.  8f 

205°  C.,  400°  F.:   49      " 

74-0 

74.0 

75-o 

84.0 

*49  hours.  t42  hours. 

TABLE  XII. — DISTILLATION:  ENGLER'S  FLASKS. 


Beau- 
mont. 

Ohio. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Distillation  begins  
Below  1  50°  C  

>er  cent. 

110°  C. 

2-5 

40.0 
20.  o 

25.0 

10.  0 

30.0 
S.o 
7.0 

85°  C. 
23.0 

21.0 
21.0 

27.0 

5-0 

2-5 

80°  C. 
21.  0 
41.0 
14.0 
J23.0 

(99.0 

1.8 

2.0 

150°—  300°  C  
300°—  350°  C  

350°  —  400°  C  

Loss  on  acid  treatment  (150°  — 
300°  C.  fraction)  
1  50°  —  260°  C  per  cent. 
Loss  on  acid  treatment. 
Percentage  of  acid  used       " 

TABLE  XIII.— SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  REFRACTIVE  INDEX. 


Beaumont. 

Ohio. 

Pennsylvania. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Refrac. 
Index. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Refrac. 
Index. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Refrac. 
Index. 

Below  150°.. 

150°—  300°.. 
300°—  350°.. 
350°—  400°.. 

(Amoi 
srm 
0.8749 
o  .  9089 
0.9182 

int  too 
ill.) 
i  473 
1.501 
1.508 

0.7297 

0.8014 
0.8404 
0.8643 

1.412 

1.442 

1.468 
1.481 

0.7188 

0.7984 
0.8338 
Paraffin 

I-4I5 

1-437 
1.462 
1.470 

After  acid  treatment. 

150°—  300°.. 

0.8704 

1-473 

0.8006 

1-443 

0.7791 

1.438 

TABLE  XIV. — CALORIFIC  POWER  OF  VARIOUS  DESCRIPTIONS 
OP  PETROLEUM,  ETC.     (B.  REDWOOD.) 


Description  of  Oil. 

> 

2cj 

0°° 

£t» 

%£• 
«§"* 

Chemical  Com- 
position. 

Coefficient  of 
Expansion. 

2<£-3J 
ll- 

m 
& 

Effect  in 
Heat  Units. 

| 
a 
(J 

6 

P 

P 

& 
>» 

0 

Heavy  Petroleum  from 
West  Virginia  
Light  Petroleum  from 
West  Virginia  
Light  Petroleum  from 
Pennsylvania  
Heavy  Petroleum  from 
Pennsylvania  
American  Petroleum  .  . 
Petroleum  from  Parma 
Petroleum  from   Pech- 
elbronn  

0.873 
0.8412 
0.816 

0.886 
0.820 
0.786 

0.912 
0.892 
0.861 
0.829 
0.892 
0-955 
0.870 

0.885 
0.911 

1.044 

33-5 
84-3 
82.0 

84-9 
83-4 
84.0 

86.9 
85-7 
86.2 
79-5 
80.4 
86.2 
82.2 

85.3 
80.3 

82.0 
87-4 
86.3 
86.6 

87.1 
87.1 
87.1 

13-3 
14.1 
14.8 

13-7 
14.7 
13-4 

II.  8 

12.0 
13-3 
13-6 
12.7 
II.4 
I2.I 
12.6 

"•5 

7.6 

12.5 

13.6 
12.3 

11.7 

12.0 
10.4 

3-2 

1.6 

3-2 

1.04 
1.9 

1.8 

i-3 

2-3 

0-5 
6.9 
6.9 
2-4 

5-7 

2.1 

(N.  0.) 

8.2 

(0.  S'.  N  ) 
104 

O.I 
O.I 

I.I 

1.2 

0.9 

2.5 

0.00072 
0.000839 
0.00084 

0.000721 
0.000868 
0.000706 

0.000767 
0.000793 
0.000858 
0.000843 
0.000772 
0.000641 
0.000813 

0.000775 
0.000896 

0.000743 
0.000817 
0.000724 
0.000681 

0.00091 
0.000769 
0.0008685 

14.58 
14-55 
14.05 

15-3° 
14.14 
13.96 

14.30 
14.48 
15-36 

14.23 

14.79 
12.24 

12.77 

16.40 

15-55 

15.02 
14-75 

10,  180 
10,223 
9.963 

10,672 
9-771 

10,121 
9,708 
I0.02O 
10,458 

IO,O85 

10,231 
9,046 

8,916 
11,700 
11,460 
10,800 

IO,70O 
10,831 

10,081 

Petroleum   from  Pech- 
elbronn  
Petroleum    from 
Schwabweiler  
Petroleum    from 
Schwabweiler  .  .  . 

Petroleum    from   Han- 
over 

Petroleum    from   Han- 
over 

Petroleum    from    East 
Galicia  
Petroleum    from  West 
Galicia  
Shale  Oil  from  Ardeche 
Coal    Tar   from    Paris 
Gasworks    . 

Petroleum  from  Balak- 
hany 

6.822 
0.844 
0.938 

0.928 
0-923 
0.985 

Light  Petroleum  from 
Baku. 

Heavy  Petroleum  from 
Baku  

Petroleum    residues 
from  Baku  Factories 
Petroleum  from  Java.  . 
Heavy  Oil  from  Ogaio 

&%& 


c?  ^ 


o 


.3     £    "8. 


S     ,? 


O  00  OO 


I-    S 

_° °_ 

J? °0 


.2  g 


'I   **s  si  ^ 

g  :      *1  >,S    >> 

-  «-*>    "^  G  fl  >"3     ^ 

r^  3>3 1**  B 


:    S 
^    S 


>2.    fc 
S    « 


21 
|S 


238 


OIL   ENGINES. 


TABLE  XVI. — OIL  FUEL.     (B.  REDWOOD.) 


Locality. 

Fuel. 

Sp. 
Gr.  at 

0.928 
0.9 
0.938 

o.'886 


Chemical  Compo- 
sition. 

Heating 
Power. 

Car- 
bon. 

87.1 
84.94 
86.6 
84-9 
84.9 
86.894 
85.491 
80.583 
83.012 

Hy-   ' 
gen.      gen- 

II-7         .2 

Actual 
Calori- 
metric 
(Ib.  C. 
Units.) 

Calcu- 
lated 
(Ib.  C. 
Heat 
Units.) 

Russian  

Caucasian  
"     (Novorossisk) 
Pennsylvanian  
American 

Petrol,  refuse 
Astatki 
Heavy  Crude 

Refined 
Double    " 
Crude      " 

I3-96       -2 
12.3          .1 
11.63       -458 

13-7        -4 
13-107  
14.2160.293 
15.101  4.316 
13.8893.099 

10,340 
I0,8oo 
10,328 

10,912 
11,045 
II.086 
11,094 

11,626 

11,200 
10,672 

<> 

ii 

TABLE  XVII.— CALORIFIC   POWER  OF   CRUDE   PETROLEUM. 
(B.  REDWOOD.) 


Sp.  Gr. 

Calories. 

Heavy  Lubricating  Oil,  White  Oak,  ) 
Western  Virginia                                  f 
Light  Illuminating  Oil,  Oil  Creek,  Pa. 

0.873 
0.816 

10,180 
9.963 

Oil   from  Dandang,  *Leo  Rembang,  ) 
Java.                                                        \ 

0.923 

10,831 

Light  Oil  from  Baku  

0.884 

11,460 

Oil  from  Western  Galicia  

0.885 

10,231 

"         "     Eastern       "      

0.870 

10,005 

"        "     Parma.  .  . 

0.786 

IO,12I 

"        "     Schwahweiler  . 

0.861 

10,458 

FUELS. 


239 


CALIFORNIA  CRUDE  OIL. 

The  crude  petroleum  procured  in  the  various  oil 
fields  of  California,  from  the  information  available,  ap- 
pears to  vary  considerably  in  its  characteristics.  Ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of 
San  Francisco,  in  1902  the  oil-producing  fields  of  Kern 
River,  Coalinga,  Los  Angeles,  Fullerton,  with  many 
others,  in  which  over  2,000  wells  were  in  operation, 
produced  an  average  daily  supply  of  over  37,000  bar- 
rels. It  has  been  used  hitherto  chiefly  for  fuel  pur- 
poses, and  having  in  most  instances  an  asphaltum  base, 
is  most  suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  characteristics 
of  the  oil  vary  so  widely,  however,  that  while  some 
samples  can  only  be  used  for  fuel,  that  produced  in 
other  wells  would  yield  illuminating  oils  on  distillation 
in  considerable  quantity.  The  following  is  the  analysis 
of  two  samples  of  the  distillates  from  the  Kern  River 
field: 

(Flash  test  was  taken, 
using  the  open 
method. ) 

Gravity   0.901  0.859 

Beaume 26.2°  34° 

Flash 169°    F.  119°  F. 

According  to  Mr.  Paul  Prutzman,*  the  oil  produced 
in  Coalinga  oil  field  varies  from  11.5°  Beaume  to  45°. 
The  viscosity  of  various  samples  varies  from  68  to  296, 
while  the  flash  point  varies  from  220°  to  278°  F.  This 
writer  also  refers  to  the  refining  qualities  of  various 
samples,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  on  distillation 
*  Pacific  Oil  Reporter,  Vol.  4,  No.  35- 


240  OIL  ENGINES. 

while  some  of  the  oil  would  give  far  greater  amount  of 
kerosene  (42°  B.)  than  others,  the  average  yield  of 
kerosene  on  distillation  would  be  about  14  per  cent; 
while  the  engine  distillate  (48  to  52°  B.)  given  off 
from  the  above-mentioned  samples  would  also  vary 
considerably  in  quantity,  the  average  would,  however, 
be  approximately  14  per  cent — the  products  which  were 
obtained  being  of  a  lighter  quality  than  kerosene  were 
inconsiderable.  This  fuel  is  now  used  on  the  Pacific 
coast  in  large  quantities,  both  under  boilers  for  gen- 
erating steam,  in  gas  engines  having  first  been  gasified, 
as  explained  in  Chapter  XII.,  as  well  as  in  the  oil 
engine  proper,  where  it  is  vaporized  by  the  same 
methods  as  with  kerosene. 

FUEL  OIL. 

The  oil  known  as  fuel  or  gas  oil,  as  already  stated, 
is  procured  in  the  process  of  fractional  distillation  after 
the  lighter  oils  and  the  illuminating  oils  have  been 
taken  off.  Various  samples  of  this  fuel  have  come 
within  the  writer's  notice,  the  characteristics  of  which 
have  varied  considerably,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table : 

FUEL  OIL. 
Specific  gravity    .  .         0.832  .878 

Beaume    36°  30.2° 

Flash-point  144°  F.  298°  F. 

Fire  test 183°  F.  247°  F. 

This  fuel  is  much  used  in  oil  engines  in  the  United 
States.  With  the  heavier  grades  a  slight  deposit  of  car- 
bon is  left  in  the  engines,  which  requires  periodical  re- 
moving. 


TEST  OF  FUELS 


241 


TABLE— THE    CALORIFIC    POWER    OP    PETROLEUM    OILS    AND 

THE  RELATION  OF  DENSITY  TO  CALORIFIC  POWER. 
The  following  are  extracts  of  tests  of  various  samples  of  crude 
oils,  representing  the  products  from  the  principal  oil  fields  of 
the  United  States,  and  were  made  by  H.  C.  Sherman  and  A.  H. 
Kropf,  at  Columbia  University,  N.  Y.,  during  1908,  and  are  re- 
printed from  the  Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society.* 

DENSITIES  AND  HEATS  OF  COMBUSTION  OBSERVED 
AND  CALCULATED. 


Specific 
G'-avity, 
15°/150. 

Baume 
Degrees. 

Calories 
per 
Gram. 

B.  T.  U. 
per 
Pound. 

B.  T.  U. 

calcu- 
lated. 

Per- 
centage 
Error. 

Description. 

O.7IOO 

67.2 

".733 

21,120 

20,938 

—  0.91 

Gasoline. 

0.7830 

48.8 

11,121 

20,Ol8 

20,206 

+  0.92 

Kerosene. 

0.7850 

48.35 

Il.Ilg 

20,014 

20,194 

+  0.89 

Cal.  refined. 

0-7945 

46.2 

11,128 

20,030 

20,098 

+  0-33 

W.  Va.  crude. 

0.8048 

44.0 

11,149 

20,068 

20,010 

—  0.29 

Ohio  crude. 

0.8059 

43-7 

11,143 

20,057 

19-998 

—  o  29 

Penna.  crude. 

0.8o8o 

43-2 

11,001 

19.802 

19.979 

+  0.88 

Cal.  refined. 

0.8103 

42.8 

11,090 

I9,963 

19,962 

±  o.oo 

Kansas  refined. 

0.8237 

40.0 

10,981 

19,766 

19,850 

+  0.42 

W.  Va.  crude. 

0.8324 

38.2 

10,990 

19.782 

19-778 

—  O.O2 

Penna.  crude. 

0.8418 

36.3 

10,950 

19,710 

19,702 

—  0.04 

Ohio  crude. 

o.  842  r 

36.25 

10,997 

19-795 

19,698 

-0.48 

Indian  Ter. 

0.8436 

36.0 

11,069 

19,924 

19,690 

—   I.I? 

Indian  Ter. 

0.8510 

34-5 

10,958 

19-724 

19,630 

—  0.47 

Kansas  crude. 

0.8580 

33-2 

10,772 

19,389 

19.578 

+  0-95 

Kansas  crude. 

0.8597 

0.8640 

0.8914 
0.8970 
0.9065 

32-8 
32.05 
27.1 
26.1 

24-45 

10,766 
10,867 
10,690 
10,753 
10,751 

19-379 
19-555 
19,242 
19-355 
19,352 

19,562 
19-530 
I9-332 
19,294 
19,228 

+  0-95 
-  0.12 
+  0.45 
—  0.31 
—  0.63 

Illinois  crude. 
California  Ref. 
Texas  crude. 
Texas  crude. 
Texas  crude. 

0.9087 
0.9158 

24  t 

22.9 

10,712 
10,318 

19,282 
18,572 

19.213 
I9,l66 

—  0.35  Texas  cruae. 
+  2.58  iCalif.  crude. 

0.9170 
0.9644 

22.7 
15-2 

10,613 
10,327 

19,103 
18,589 

i9-T57 

18,858 

+  0.28   Fuel  oil. 
+  1.42-lCalif.  crude. 

*  Journal  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  XXX,  No.  10,  October, 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

OWING  to  the  increasing  use  of  the  metric  system, 
the  following  comparisons  of  United  States  and  metric 
'measures  and  weights,  etc.,  prepared  by  C.  H.  Herter, 
are  added.  The  unit  of  hngth  is  the  metre  =  39.37 
inches;  the  unit  of  capacity  is  the  litre  =  61.0236  cubic 
inches;  the  unit  of  weight  is  the  gramme  =  15.43236 
grains. 

The  following  prefixes  are  used  for  subdivisions 
and  multiples  :  Milli  —  y-<nnr>  Centi  =  y^-,  Deci  =  TV» 
Deca  =  10,  Hecto  =  100,  Kilo  =  1000,  and 
Myria  —  10,000.  In  abbreviations  the  subdivisions  be- 
gin with  a  small  letter,  the  multiples  with  a  capital  let- 
ter. For  example : 


Millimetre        (.001)  denote 

d  by  mm. 
cm. 
dm. 
m. 
Dm. 
Hm. 
Km. 
ca. 
dm2. 
m3. 
dl. 
me. 
Kz. 

Centimetre         (.01)  
Decimetre            (.1)  
Metre                    (r.)  
Decametre          (10.)  
Hectometre      (100.)  
Kilometre       (1000.)  
i  Centiare         (i  m'1). 

Square  decimetre 

Cube  metre. 

Decilitre. 

Milligram. 

Kilogram..  . 

MISCELLANEOUS. 


243 


fefc     -g.lr* 

0,0,        CO-gO  i- 

CO     CO  ^  °M     O*°l-l     >  ' 

.Q  X)  C71     _  1)          m  ' 

"is  wfiS-s*1 


W  4^  *•»  «  * 
|ll^§ 

H^KS2||S 

<  ^7  -S  "  'S  ^  x  " 
g  :  ='2'os"3 


= 

= 


gramme  per 
Kg.  per  cm2 


E5'oi^  „ 

S-fio-C^ 


uiKis; 

•e  s -3  s^  :^g 
^5  0S«J^_: 

rt        ^  rt   c<   o3 

O         — i  o    O    U 


IS  ES 

3§"    ^ 


S-  -  - 


||«KE1| 

a  u  u  s,5?  =  c:  s 


r* 


.SdTTii 

l?L?l 
^1 


M  tfl 

II     o 


Q 

u  8,8, 


d 


H,  r^ 
0° 


o  q 
o  o 


244 


OIL    ENGINES. 


OB 

.g 

^_: 

^. 

'P 

J^ 

4D 

_ 

s~* 

"7 

•" 

,n 

J§ 

j 

4J 

i 

o 

o 

^ 

S 

'g 

J 

"d 

u 

§ 

35 

CO 

0 

t/3                            »—  3 

G 

Cu 

^ 

1 

M 

0 

•^                M 

§ 

| 

1 

"o 

G 

S, 

M 

> 

II 

0 

II 

S   w   3    Sj          ^ 

a 

ll 

£- 

0 

cT 

c 

(A 

fc 

1 

1 

00 

METRIC  to 

AND  CAPACIT 

^t 
CO 
in 
CO 

II 

i 

^  ^     s 

o  S  =  ^  |-g 
£  ££3-^  % 

II    g^O   N     g^> 

g  2  :  £  ^| 

WEIGHT 

)  =  15.432  gn 
or  0.035274  a 

.  =  2.20462  a1 

*c 

S 

i 

0 

0 

o 

** 

t£ 

<J 

COMPOUND  i 

"co 
0 

II 

e 

Jt 

1 

0 
il 

g 

(U 

j 

.•y  o  o  o   M  5 

^                       cn  c^> 

<U 

s 

II 

1 

fi 

S 

|| 

"    «i 

1 

c 
c 
_c 

w    N 

| 

1 

S 

£ 
o 

1         3 

bb 

kbb 

^ 

o  o 

tJC 

t? 

s 

o 

"g         __.  j-< 

'oT 

S 

^ 

ti 

^ 

bb 

S 

i 

II 

r-- 

CO 

Vi 

II 

^-    vn  *o     c< 
O    CO      -^     CT* 

r^   r^    o   w 

6     co    0    M 
II     II     II     II 

I  bb 

bb  S 

""c/5 

bb  « 

cc     || 

0 
0 

II 

c' 

0 
0 

II 

0? 

1 

II 

•ammes  pei 

a 

s, 

bb 

M 

u 

.   ^^     . 

0        • 

tn 

b£ 

H 

s 

s 

•    d 

0       • 

o 

bb 

f^ 

H 

fc 

>* 

CO 

tn 

co 

- 

g 

a? 

:  S>  : 

I" 

CO 

3 

g 

Q 

M 

O 

o 

O 

a 

r/D 

0 

o 

II    : 

2    • 

u    . 

|| 

|| 

6 
|| 

Z 

II 

II 

CA 

3 

u 

Q 
Z 

0 
O 

II 

"    C 

•II 

OH 

3 

1 

1 
S 

1 

S 

1 

•§!.?£ 

-E 

1 

§ 

o 

5 

d 

u 

MH 

>>  bc^  ^ 

•—-  ^ 

T3 

<!! 

U-l 

ft 

o 

is 

^ 

2  ^  l3  t 

'3   c 

C 
3 

o 

c 

O 

c 

'3 

a 

0 

CJ 

g  ti  &^ 

bb  o 

a 

0 

3 

^ 

MISCELLANEOUS. 


245 


u.  s 

.  to  METRIC 

METRIC  to  U.S. 

i  inch.  .  .  . 
i  foot  .... 
1  yard. 

LINEAR 

.  .  .  .  =  25.4  mm. 
=    o.  3048  m. 

LINEAR 

1  m.  =  39.37  in.  or  3.2808   ft. 
or  1.0936  yds. 
i  mm  =  0.03937  inch 
i  cm  =  0.3937  inch 
iKm.  =  1093.  6iyds.oro.62i  mile 

SQUARE 

i  m2.  ==  10.  7639  sq.  ft. 
or  1.196  sq.  yards 
i  mm2.  .  .  .  .  =  0.00155  sq.  inch 

i  mile 

i  sq.  inch 
i  sq.  foot  ; 

i  sq.  yard 

SQUARE 

=  6.4516  cm2. 
=  929.03  cm2 
or  0.0929  m'2. 
...   .  —  0.8361  m'2 

FIRE  INSURANCE. 

The  foLowing  are  the  requirements  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for  the  Installation  and 
use  of  Kerosene  Oil  Engines : 

LOCATION  OF  ENGINE. — Engine  shall  not  be  located 
where  the  normal  temperature  is  above  95°  Fahr.,  or 
within  ten  feet  of  any  fire. 

If  enclosed  in  room,  same  must  be  well  ventilated, 
and  if  room  has  a  wood  floor,  the  entire  floor  must  be 
covered  with  metal  and  kept  free  from  the  drippings 
of  oil. 

If  engine  is  not  enclosed,  and  if  set  on  a  wood  floor, 
then  the  floor  under  and  three  feet  outside  of  it  must 
be  covered  with  metal. 

OIL  FEED  TANK. — If  located  inside  of  building,  shall 
not  exceed  five  gallons  capacity,  and  must  be  made  of 
galvanized  iron  or  copper,  not  less  than  No.  22  B.  & 
S.  gauge,  and  must  be  double  seamed  and  soldered, 
and  must  be  set  in  a  drip  pan  on  the  floor  at  the  base 
of  the  engine. 


246  OIL   ENGINES. 

Tanks  of  more  than  five  gallons  capacity  must  be 
made  of  heavy  iron  or  steel,  be  riveted,  and  be  located, 
preferably,  underground  outside  of  the  building.  If 
there  is  no  space  available  outside  the  building  for  a 
tank,  it  may,  by  written  permission  from  this  Board, 
be  located  in  an  approved  vault  attached  to  the  building, 
or  in  a  non-combustible  and  well-ventilated  compart- 
ment inside  the  building ;  but  no  such  tank  shall  exceed 
five  barrels  capacity. 

Tanks,  irrespective  of  the  method  of  feed,  must  not 
be  located  above  the  floor  on  which  the  engine  is  set. 

The  base  of  an  engine  must  not  be  used  in  lieu  of  a 
tank  as  a  receptacle  for  feed  oil.  A  tank,  if  satisfac- 
torily insulated  from  the  heat  of  the  engine  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Board,  may  be  placed  inside  of  the  base. 

In  starting  an  engine,  gas  only,  properly  arranged, 
must  be  used  to  heat  the  combustion  chamber. 

A  high-grade  kerosene  oil  must  be  used,  the  flash  test 
of  which  shall  be  not  lower  than  100°  Fahr. 

Oily  waste  and  rags  must  be  kept  in  an  approved 
self-closing  metal  can,  with  legs  to  raise  it  six  inches 
above  the  floor. 

The  supply  of  oil,  unless  in  an  approved  £ank  out- 
side the  building,  or  in  a  non-combustible  compartment, 
as  above  provided  for,  shall  not  exceed  one  barrel, 
which  may  be  stored  on  the  premises,  provided  same 
is  kept  in  an  unexposed  location  ten  feet  distant  from 
any  fire,  artificial  light  and  inflammable  material,  and 
oil  drawn  by  daylight  only. 

A  drip  pan  must  be  placed  under  the  barrel. 

Empty  kerosene  barrels  must  not  be  kept  on  the 
premises-. 


TABLE  VI.— TRIALS  OF  25  B.  H.  P.  HORNSBY-AKROYD  OIL  ENGINE, 
JAN.  4,  1898  (ROBINSON). 


Power  or  Load  Factor. 

Full 
Load. 

Two- 
thirds 
Load. 

One- 
third 
Load. 

No 
Load. 

Maxi- 
mum 
Load. 

Duration  of  trial  hours  
Revolutions  per  min.  (mean) 
Explosions  per  minute     " 
Mean    effective    pressure  ) 

3 

202.6 
IOI.3 

45-4-43-4 

3 
202.4 
IOI.2 

31-2 

2 
203 
100 

18.3 

I 

201.5 
100.7 

6 

H 

203 

101.5 

Indicated  H.  P  

32.3-31 

22-4 

13   I 

4  28 

Brake  or  actual  H.  P  
Spent  in  engine  friction,  H.  P. 
Mechanical  efficiency,  per  [ 
cent  J 

26.74 
5.56-4.26 

82.4-86 

17.96 
4.44 

80 

9.0 

4-1 
69 

0 

4.28 

39 

Oil  Used  in  Engine. 
Per  hour  Ibs. 

ig    75 

16.75 

12 

5  75 

"    I.  H.  P.,  hour 
"    B.H.P.      " 

O.6I-0.63 
0.74 

0.74 
O.gl 

O.gl 
1.3 

i-34 



Jacket   Water. 
Lb.  per  minute  

67.5 

60 

Final  temperature  (Fahr.).  . 
Rise  in  degrees             " 
Equivalent  H.  P.  lost. 

138° 

47° 
74  8 

130° 
29° 

I320 

29° 
41 

142° 

32° 

138° 
26° 

Indicated  Pressure  Id.  per 
sq.  in.  above  A  tinosphere. 
Compression  before  ignition 
Explosion  pressure  
Percentage  equivalent  of  } 
effective  heat  from  oil.  .  f 
Useful  work  at  Brake 

60 
1  68 

18 

60 
150 

50 

95 
10 

55to?5 



3 

4  5 

Shown  on  indicator  diagram 

21 

14  5 

Carried  away  in  jacket  water 
Balance  lost  in  exhaust  \ 
gases  and   unaccounted  j- 
for             ) 

50 
29 



45-5 
40 

The  day  was  rainy,  with  mist  and  complete  saturation  of  air. 
The  engine  was  cold  when  lamp  lighted  at  10.15  A.M.,  and  started 
working  in  five  minutes.  Observations  were  made  in  full  load  trial 
at  10.30  A.M. 


From  "  Gas  and  Petroleum  Engines,"  by  Prof.  Wni.  Robinson,  page  710. 


s 


c* 

1     100         I     |9    I         S 

II*    11°  1   ° 


§ 


!s  S 

-  o 

•  jf 


-- 
co   .jg   .   . 


MISCELLANEOUS 


249 


•nog 


•O   ti  in  1-1 


r~co  en 


'en 


•pvi  'saXStrex 


O   en          in  m  moo   4 


M  O     O  co 


O    •*  N  co  CMn  N   N   O  CO 

O        CO in  w 

'°3   3?  N{*  M  r^co  cno  oo  o*  o  o^co  r^  w         \o 

O     '  m  -t  -t  t-i  en  M  ti          O 

^.enenOcn  wcococom  enw  •* 

*°3  3?  NM  Mwowcn  eni^ooOen  ^-O  M 

uosuaqdais  "S       ^  N     £  en  in  «  4  M  M  en  ci  en  ei  4  en 

•03  auiSug         \N        \N  oTrt'ovS  " 

O>co     O  en4i-iM  ot^wvO  eno  ^- 

•03  auiSug^        _  C?*°C°.  T  Cfq^"S!l  ""         " 

MO  OONtHl^-  O^iH'C^M  COO 


'?,       o 


-:^ 


b. 
b. 
nce 
nce 


•~i    rti     PM 

SD^EH 

•a     u  ^  « 

s-js-^f 

£ll|S 

D'^'wW     J 


3  illlH  i«iM 

^  u  u  5  O  EH 
<U  0)  fe  0-5  ^ 
^  ^aiicj  g 

Illfl 

^•3  ^W  ' 
•C  S  •_  i)  l-i 


II 


S«°^  3-stS.fe 

ilslfila**.8- 


Dia 
Str 
Pri 
e 


a|&Jf| 

S^r^g:    K 
PQHOO 


j^sjsli-  J 

SS.S.2sgS.S.|" 

•^'S  «-.»  fc     M    O  5    S 

jjIsHsiJai 

flla|:  ^  oSg  2 

PQ^OO  HO^PQ 


250  OIL    ENGINES. 

RESULTS  OF  TEST  ON  HORNSBY  OIL 

ENGINE. 

BY  PROFESSOR  W.  ROBINSON,  M.I.C.E.  AT  GRANTHAM 
ENGLAND. 

Date  of  Trial September  29,  1908. 

Type  and  No.  of  Engine.  ."D"  No.  27,858. 

Rated  Load,  B.  H.  P 32  B.  H.  P.  Working  Load. 

Fuel  Used Russolene  H.  V.  O.  Oil 

(Refined  Russian. Oil). 
Speed,  mean  revs,  per  min. .  230.2. 

Duration  of  Trial i  hour. 

Compression,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.85. 
Explosion,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. .  .  260. 

Brake  Horse-power 32. 

Fuel  Consumption. 

Total  Weight 19.6  Ibs. 

Per  B.  H.  P.  Hour 61  Ibs,  equals  .59  pint. 

Calorific  Value  of  Fuel. . . . lower  C.  V.  18,450  B.T.U's. 
Absolute  Thermal  Effic'y.  .22.6  per  cent. 

The  above  engine  was  of  the  single  cylinder  hori- 
zontal type  rated  at  32  B.  H.  P.  Time  of  starting  all 
parts  cold,  10  minutes. 

The  engine  was  a  standard  stock  engine,  built  by 
R.  Hornsby  &  Sons,  Grantham,  England. 

CAMPBELL  OIL  ENGINE  TEST 
The  following  test  of  a  Campbell  oil  engine,  No. 
6631,  was  made  June  12,  1909,  on  6  B.  H.  P.  horizontal 
single  cylinder  type.  The  effective  radius  of  brakes 
24"-25".  Full  load  on  brake=62.6  Ibs.  Fuel  consump- 
tion at  full  load=o.705  pint  per  B.  H.  P.  hour,  at  half 
load  0.8 1  pint,  and  at  light  load  0.9  pint. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


The  fuel  used  was  Russian  refined  oil  having  .825 
specific  gravity  with  83°  to  86°  Fahr.  flashpoint.    The 
maximum  load  carried  by  the  engine  was  7.4  B.  H.  P. 
The  test  was  made  at  the  Works,  Halifax,  England. 
FULL  LOAD. 


Time 

Net  Load 
on  Brake 

R.  P.  M. 

Oil  in 

Reservoir 

Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 

10.30 

64  Ibs. 

254 

10.5  pints 

98 

10-45 

61     " 

254 

9-25    " 

100 

11.00 

62     " 

254 

8.4      " 

102 

11.15 

63     " 

254 

7-3      " 

100 

11.30 

63     " 

254 

6.2         " 

IOO 

HALF  LOAD. 


Time 

Net  Load 
on  Brake 

R.  P.  M. 

Oil  in 
Reservoir 

Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 

11.30 

32  Ibs. 

258 

6.2  pints 

58 

11-45 

33     " 

2.58 

5-6      " 

62 

12.  OO 

33     " 

258 

4-9      " 

62 

LIGHT  LOAD. 


Time 

Net  Load 
on  Brake 

R.  P.  M. 

Oil  in 
Reservoir 

Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 

24 
26 

12.00 

12.15 

258 
258 

4.9  pints 
4.6      " 

OVERLOAD. 


Time 

Net  Load 
on  Brake 

R.  P.  M. 

Oil  in 
Reservoir 

Explo- 
sions per 
Minute 

76  Ibs. 

252 

126 

•suog 

r-m-j-w         r-          in                                     _^5i^o 

V  IIBPU«D  -H 

"S       S-^^SS-*      ^                 *|    ^2 

'H8PPBM  PUB 

-1-                          -f                                                      —  •?   O  in        in 
\^j         co         in  in  in  o                       lilt            >^  t^  c-4    •    n 
-f'en           in  c<   n'   d   O    O            O  CO     '      '      '      '            £§  n1    '   O   '    i-i 

•pri  'saXSuBj, 

wmcien       O                            inen-T            £NUP>I^O 

•1-  in          O    -tec   inoco            wOOOw                    !«       'oo 

BURGH. 

Jn        to        O            vn              to   *"             "     N    ^  o"  ~t 

to     •      r^-co  en  t  d  cj           Oco  o^^"  t                 |      '  r^ 

g 

s 

-fc 

suoSoV 

,o        !«o^5       ,,1111         j^l§ 

MADE 

•o.l  % 

O                                                                                       «>     in  m        c<^ 
0       In  t        N                             ,..             |    co   en   .   c? 

•^-M           cooOMOu^         Ow         '                                  r^' 

ENGINES 

•03  3> 

M                         -1-                                 osco          —  J^  o^       xn  c<^ 

,j 

•03  auiSug 

•£       eno       co           in        [    J    j     j            |   «   ^  |    « 

CO 

M  3"  M  J?  S  "                "                                tS 

VARIOU 

•03  auiSug 

t  w            t^-  t  m  Oco  co'            MM    OO   t                   %           6         M 

&, 

i 

..WKU*, 

t^\^          enminin                     mc<Oi^         ^.SP  r^  o  O  t-- 
enoo          utenMtm         ocotr~-O     •         £§;£•     O 

a 

CH 

1      •          ^j     '     '  d     '     '     '              

1 

X! 

:|     |  i,!  ::  1.  .!'!*':.!          i  r  1  : 

X 

Id 

cq 
< 

H 

ENGINES. 

O^JQK*^     rO'—  '.S    *ffi^    *^5>^y3     ^2     '.5 

P!|l|!i||fi|pp|!i| 

OH       Ui-Jco^i^PH       Q^SWhSS       QccHO* 

CHAPTER   XV. 
MARINE   DIESEL  ENGINES. 

INTRODUCTORY. — The  Diesel  oil  engine  has  already 
been  described  in  Chapter  XII,  both  as  regards  its 
method  of  operation,  its  general  construction  and  the 
remarkable  economy  effected  by  its  use.  In  recent 
years  the  application  of  this  engine  for  the  propulsion 
of  ships  of  small  and  large  sizes,  reaching  several 
thousand  horsepower,  has  received  very  careful  atten- 
tion throughout  the  world. 

There  are  nearly  500  ships  now  operating  propelled 
by  Diesel  engines,  and  numerous  engineering  firms 
well  known  for  the  superiority  of  their  output  in  nearly 
all  countries  of  Europe  are  engaged  in  building  them, 
while  in  this  country  not  so  many  firms  have  yet  under- 
taken their  manufacture. 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES. — Some  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  this  engine  for  marine  purposes  are: 

1.  The  space  occupied  by  it  is  less  than  that  required 
for   the   steam    engine   and   boilers    with  consequent 
greater  space  in  the  ship  available  for  cargo. 

2.  The  amount  of  attention  required  is  less.     The 
stokers  and  coal  trimmers  necessary  with  the  steam 
engine  ships  being  reduced  in  number  if  not  entirely 
eliminated. 

3.  The  facility  for  storing  the  fuel  for  the  oil  en- 

253 


254  OIL   ENGINES. 

gine  as  compared  with  that  of  the  coal  necessary  for 
a  steam  engine. 

4.  The  greater  distance  that  a  ship  equipped  with  the 
oil  engine  can  travel  as  compared  with  the  steam  engine 
because  less  fuel  is  used  by  it. 

5.  The  absence  of  funnels  of  the  steam  engine  and 
the  elimination  of  smoke. 

6.  The  quick  starting  of  the  engine  which  can  be 
accomplished  at  a  moment's  notice. 

7.  Elimination  of  standby  losses — that  is,  as  soon  as 
the  engines  are  stopped  the  fuel  consumption  ceases. 

8.  Replenishing  the  store  of  fuel.    At  sea  the  coal- 
ing of  a  steamship  is  impracticable  whereas  oil  fuel  can, 
if  necessary,  be  transferred  at  sea. 

The  amount  of  coal,  varying  with  its  quality,  con- 
sumed in  a  steamship  for  propelling  purposes  only,  is 
somewhat  over  i-J  Ibs.  per  I.  H.  P.  per  hour  or  1.8  Ibs. 
of  coal  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour.  These  figures  represent 
the  best  conditions  and  probably  a  fuel  consumption  of 
2  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  per  hour  would  be  a  fair  estimate. 
The  amount  of  liquid  fuel  used  in  a  Diesel  engine  may 
be  taken  as  0.4  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  hour.  Consequently, 
the  weight  of  fuel  consumed  in  the  Diesel  engine  as 
compared  with  the  steam  engine  is  about  one-quarter 
to  one-fifth.  Again,  when  the  engine  is  running  at  a 
reduced  speed  the  relative  economy  of  the  oil  engine 
would  then  be  greater  than  with  the  steam  engine. 

The  coal  must  be  placed  in  a  position  accessible  to 
the  boilers ;  liquid  fuel  can  be  placed  so  that  the  space 
occupied  by  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  storage  of 
the  cargo.  This  again  increases  the  earning  capacity 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES.  255 

of  the  vessel.  It  is  estimated  that  on  a  cargo  steam- 
ship equipped  with  reciprocating  engines  and  boilers 
the  weight  is  about  300  Ibs.  per  I.  H.  P.,  possibly  250 
Ibs.  for  turbine  propelled  boats.  The  weight  of  a 
Diesel  engine  including  all  accessories  would  be  ap- 
proximately 150  Ibs.  per  I.  H.  P.  and  high  speed  en- 
gines both  of  the  steam  or  the  Diesel  type  would  each 
be  respectively  nearly  one-half  of  the  weights  above 
given.  The  space  occupied  by  the  Diesel  engine  is 
about  the  same  as  that  occupied  by  the  steam  engine 
alone — thus  the  space  occupied  by  the  boilers  is  free 
in  the  Diesel  engined  ship  and  is  available  for  cargo  or 
other  purposes. 

DISADVANTAGES. — Some  of  the  disadvantages  of  the 
Diesel  engines  for  ships  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

i  Reliability — the  marine  steam  engine  has  been 
in  operation  for  generations — most  engineers  are 
thoroughly  conversant  with  it.  The  Diesel  engine  is 
comparatively  new  and  unknown  by  marine  engineers. 
It  must  have  special  care  and  attention.  With  im- 
proper handling  and  even  with  some  derangement  the 
steamship  can  be  temporarily  repaired  and  brought 
into  port,  whereas  the  Diesel  engined  ship  under  the 
same  conditions  and  with  the  same  handling  might  be 
helpless. 

2.  The  Diesel  engined  ship  unquestionably  requires 
a  high  grade  of  attention,  more  so  than  does  the  steam 
engined  ship,  which  class  of  help  may  not  be  available 
and  difficult  to  replace  (in  case  of  sickness  or  casualty) 
in  foreign  ports. 

3.  Owing  to  long  experience  of  present  marine  en- 


256  OIL    ENGINES. 

gineers  the  steam  engine  can  be  adjusted  and  kept  in 
proper  operating  condition  more  easily  than  can  the 
Diesel  engine. 

4.  Troubles  with  the  steam  plant  can  be  more  easily 
investigated  and  remedied  than  with  an  internal  com- 
bustion engine,  especially  if  it  is  in  the  hands  of  an 
inexperienced  or  careless  or  untrained  attendant. 

5.  Maintenance  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  compressed 
air  for  starting  and  manceuvering. 

Many  of  these  disadvantages  will  disappear  or  be- 
come unimportant  as  the  Diesel  engine  becomes  better 
known  to  marine  engineers  but  they  are  worthy  of 
consideration  at  the  present  time. 

TYPES. — The  Diesel  marine  engines  have  been  built 
as  follows: 

i — Four  cycle  single  acting. 

2 — Two  cycle  single  acting. 

3 — Two  cycle  double  acting,  and 

4 — Junkers  engine. 

For  land  purposes  the  four  cycle  engines  have  been 
built  in  the  vertical  type  for  slow  and  high  speed  and 
also  in  horizontal  single  acting  and  double  acting  type. 
The  two  cycle  engine  is  also  built  for  slow  as  well  as 
high  speed  vertically  and  horizontally  single  acting. 

For  marine  purposes,  of  course,  only  the  vertical 
types  are  built,  and  they  are  made  non-reversible  and 
directly  reversible.  The  four  cycle  engine  has  hitherto 
been  chiefly  used  for  land  purposes.  Greater  experi- 
ence has  been  gained  with  it  for  marine  purposes  also, 
and  it  has  been  thus  used  with  satisfaction  in  smaller 
sizes.  The  tendency  toward  building  the  Diesel  engine 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES.  257 

in  larger  sizes  has  brought  about  the  desirability  of  the 
two  cycle  type.  It  has  been  found  impracticable  to 
build  the  four  cycle  cylinder  of  the  large  dimensions 
that  would  be  required,  and  accordingly  the  only 
method  of  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  engine  was  to 
multiply  the  number  of  cylinders.  With  the  four  cycle 
type  this  has  proved  complicated  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased number  of  moving  parts  and  more  numerous 
valve  motions,  etc. 

For  engines  of  over  1000  H.  P.  the  two  cycle  type 
has  found  greater  favor.  Cylinders  of  over  1000 
H.  P.  have  been  constructed  and  plans  have  been  made 
for  such  of  even  larger  sizes.  The  two  cycle  single- 
acting  type,  on  account  of  its  comparative  simplicity 
and  the  absence  of  piston  rods  and  stuffing  boxes  has 
hitherto  been  preferred  to  the  two  cycle  double-acting 
type. 

The  two  cycle  is  capable  of  developing  nearly  double 
the  power  of  the  four  cycle  with  cylinders  of  the  same 
dimensions,  at  least,  the  power  in  the  two  cycle  engine 
is  increased  about  75  per  cent,  over  that  of  the  four 
cycle.  On  the  other  hand,  the  four  cycle  type  is 
slightly  more  economical  than  the  two  cycle,  the  fuel 
consumption  being  0.4  Ibs.  in  the  four  cycle  and  .45  Ib. 
in  the  two  cycle.  In  the  four  cycle  type  usually  more 
complete  combustion  of  the  fuel  is  obtained  and  a 
somewhat  lower  grade  of  fuel  can  be  utilized.  For  the 
larger  size  engines,  that  is  those  over  1000  H.  P.,  the 
two  cycle  type  has  unquestionable  merit  over  the  four 
cycle  in  that  it  requires  less  space,  its  weight  is  less 
and  it  is  simpler  in  construction. 


OIL    ENGINES. 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES.  259 

Diagrams  showing  the  opening  and  closing  of  air 
inlet,  exhaust  and  fuel  inlet  valves  of  the  four  cycle 
type  and  the  periods  of  exhaust  opening  and  scaveng- 
ing and  fuel  inlet  of  the  two  cycle  type  are  shown  at 
Fig.  113- 

For  the  information  of  those  who  are  not  conversant 
with  the  different  processes  of  operation  of  the  two 
and  four  cycle  type  of  engines  diagramatic  views 
are  shown  in  Fig.  1 14  which  were  given  by  the  late  Dr. 
Diesel  to  illustrate  the  working  of  each  of  the  above 
named  type  of  engines.* 

Fig.  115  illustrates  indicator  cards  showing  pressures 
existing  in  the  cylinder  of  each  type  which  were  shown 
at  the  same  time. 

DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. — The  following  is  a 
brief  description  of  some  of  the  details  of  construc- 
tion of  the  Diesel  engine  as  they  vary  with  different 
makers. 

Some  builders  construct  their  engines  with  A  frames 
supporting  the  cylinders  and  others  build  them  with 
an  enclosed  crank  chamber  which  is  provided  with  re- 
movable covers  so  as  to  facilitate  inspection  of  the 
bearings  and  moving  parts  inside  the  crank  chamber. 

All  leading  builders  now  have  standard  types,  the 
capacity  of  the  engine  being  increased  by  increasing  the 
number  of  cylinders.  Two  to  eight  cylinder  engines 
being  made.  By  thus  standardizing,  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture is  reduced — likewise  the  number  of  spare  parts 

*Address  of  Dr.  Diesel  to  the  Am.  Soc.  Mech.  Engineers, 
Proceedings,  Vol.  34,  page  908. 


260 


OIL   ENGINES. 


1.  Compression  of  pure  air. 

2.  Inlet  of  pure  air. 

3.  Combustion  and  expansion. 

4.  Exhausting  of  burnt  gases. 

FIG.  114. 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES. 


26l 


which  it  is  necessary  to  have  on  hand  for  repairs  is 
reduced  owing  to  their  being  interchangeable. 

The  compressed  air  (about  800  Ibs.  pressure)  neces- 
sary for  injection  with  the  fuel  is  furnished  by  an 
auxiliary  three  stage  compressor  operated  in  some  en- 


1  Intake 

2  Compression 

3  Working  Stroke 

4  Exhaust 


1  Scavenging 
1  Compression 

3  Working  Stroke 

4  Exhaust 


Four-stroke  Cyr 


Two-stroke  Cycle 


FIG.  115. 

gines  from  the  end  of  the  main  crankshaft  (see  Fig. 
122),  in  others  it  is  furnished  from  compressor  placed 
tandemwise  in  line  with  the  motor  cylinders,  while  in 
some  engines  this  compressor  is  operated  by  levers 
from  the  connecting  rod  or  crosshead. 

With  the  two  cycle  type  the  air  necessary  for  scav- 
enging purposes  (4  to  6  Ibs.  pressure)  is  furnished  by 
compressors  or  air  pumps  operated  by  levers  from 
crosshead  or  piston  rod  (see  Fig.  123),  or  the  com- 
pressors are  placed  in  line  with  the  main  cylinders  (see 
Fig.  126),  while  in  some  makes  a  tandem  cylinder  and 
piston  placed  below  the  motor  cylinder  is  used  to  fur- 
nish this  air ;  in  that  case  the  lower  piston  also  acts  as 
crosshead. 

In  all  cases  an  auxiliary  engine  is  provided  operat- 
ing a  2  or  3  stage  compressor  of  sufficient  capacity  to 


262  OIL   ENGINES. 

charge  the  air  tanks  and  maintain  their  pressure  when 
the  air  is  used  for  reversing  the  main  engine  and  for 
manoeuvering  purposes. 

VALVE  MOTION. — In  the  four  cycle  type  and  in  the 
two  cycle  type  where  scavenging  valves  in  the  cylinder 
head  are  employed  the  valves  are  operated  by  means  of 
a  vertical  shaft  actuated  by  skew  gearing  from  the 
crankshaft  which  vertical  shaft  is  again  geared  to  a 
horizontal  shaft,  running  parallel  with  the  crankshaft 
and  in  most  engines  supported  by  bearings  on  brackets 
attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinders,  while  in 
others  this  shaft  is  placed  lower  down.  To  this  shaft 
are  keyed  or  otherwise  attached  the  various  cams  re- 
quired to  operate  each  valve.  The  motion  of  the  cams 
is  transmitted  to  the  valves  through  reach  rods  and 
levers  as  shown  in  the  various  illustrations. 

COOLING. — A  sufficient  supply  of  cooling  water  to 
maintain  the  proper  temperature  of  the  cylinder  is 
necessary  to  circulate  around  its  water  jacket — three 
to  four  gallons  of  water  per  B.  H.  P.  hour  which 
should  not  exceed  an  outlet  temperature  of  175°  F. 
with  the  smaller  diameter  four  cycle  type.  With  the 
large  diameter  cylinders  and  of  the  two  cycle  type  five  to 
ten  gallons  of  water  per  B.  H.  P.  hour  is  required  and 
the  outlet  temperature  should  not  exceed  120°  F. 
In  the  larger  four  cycle  engines  the  exhaust 
valves  are  also  water  cooled,  being  made  hollow,  the 
cooling  water  entering  and  leaving  through  the  hollow 
valve  stem  or  guide.  In  some  engines  the  piston  is 
provided  with  a  space  for  cooling  water  or  cooling  oil 
at  the  combustion  end  which  liquid  is  conducted  to  and 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES.  263 

fro  through  sliding  telescopic  tubes.  Provision  for 
cooling  the  main  crankshaft  bearings  is  also  made 
either  by  direct  water  cooling  or  by  a  system  of  cooling 
the  lubricating  oil  referred  to  later. 

LUBRICATION. — In  Diesel  engines  of  all  types  for 
marine  work,  particular  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  lubrication.  For  the  piston,  special 
lubricating  oil  having  a  high  flashpoint  and  with  a  very 
small  percentage  of  animal  oil  is  used.  It  is  furnished 
by  a  positively  operated  force  feed  oil  pump  actuated 
from  the  camshaft  or  other  moving  part  of  the  engine, 
preferably  by  a  separate  pump  for  each  piston.  The 
oil  is  delivered  through  four  separate  copper  pipes  to 
different  parts  of  the  piston  and  cylinder  surface,  thus 
ensuring  proper  distribution  of  the  lubricant. 

The  main  or  crankshaft  bearings  are  furnished  with 
a  plentiful  supply  of  oil  which,  in  the  later  designs  of 
engines  is  delivered  by  gravity  and  is  forced  around 
and  on  to  the  bearings.  Then  it  is  conducted  through 
an  oil  filter  and  to  a  special  tank  in  which  is  a  cooling 
water  coil,  and  after  proper  cooling  descends  to  the 
sump  to  be  pumped  through  the  bearings  again. 

The  piston  pin  is  lubricated  either  by  a  sliding  tube 
placed  on  the  piston  or  crosshead  which  is  arranged  to 
deliver  the  oil  directly  to  the  piston  pin  or  in  some  de- 
signs lubricating  oil  is  fed  by  pressure  pump  through 
the  crankshaft  which  is  then  made  hollow.  The  lubri- 
cant is  forced  on  to  the  surface  of  the  crankpin  bear- 
ing and  is  conducted  through  a  hollow  space  in  the  con- 
necting rod  up  to  the  piston  pin. 

CYLINDER  HEAD. — All  makers  of  the  four  cycle  type 


264  OIL   ENGINES. 

have  the  cylinder  head  water-jacketted  with  the  air  and 
exhaust  valves  placed  vertically  in  it  as  shown  in  Fig. 
127,  and  the  oil  inlet  sprayer  placed  in  the  cylinder 
head  vertically  as  shown  in  the  various  sectional  illus- 
trations. This  design,  however,  is  modified  in  the 
American  Diesel  engine  built  by  the  Busch  Sulzer 
Bros.  Diesel  Engine  Company  of  St.  Louis  as 
shown  at  Fig.  135,  where  the  sprayer  is  placed  hori- 
zontally and  injects  the  fuel  between  the  inlet  and 
exhaust  valves,  which  in  this  engine  are  placed  in  the' 
same  line,  the  admission  valve  opening  downwards 
being  placed  above,  the  exhaust  valve  opening  upwards 
being  placed  below. 

The  cylinder  head  of  the  two  cycle  type  is  shown  in 
section  at  Figs.  126  and  127.  It  is  water-jacketted 
similar  to  the  four  cycle  type,  in  it  being  four  scav- 
enger valves.  These  allow  the  entrance  of  air  at  a 
pressure  4  to  6  Ibs.  (compressed  in  the  compressor 
shown  at  Fig.  123)  required  to  properly  eject  the  ex- 
haust gases  and  completely  fill  the  cylinder  with  air. 
The  method  of  operating  scavenging  valves  is  shown 
at  Fig.  126.  The  sprayer,  sprayer  valve,  starting  air 
valve  and  safety  valve  are  also  inserted  vertically  in 
the  cylinder  head  and  are  shown  in  the  sectional  view. 

PISTONS. — The  piston  is  made  of  the  ordinary  trunk 
type  (see  Fig.  126),  with  6  to  8  cast  iron  piston  rings 
and  piston  or  gudgeon  pin.  In  many  makes  of  engines 
it  is  made  of  sufficient  length  to  act  as  a  crosshead,  the 
connecting  rod  being  directly  attached  within  it  as 
shown  in  Fig.  126. 

Other  builders,  especially  in  engines  of  the  larger 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES.  265 

size,  have  found  it  advantageous  to  use  a  crosshead 
with  guides  similar  to  that  used  in  steam  engine  prac- 
tice. Then  a  shorter  piston  than  that  previously  re- 
ferred to  is  used  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  124.  The  differ- 
ent advantages  of  the  crosshead  are: 

1.  The  guides  within  which  it  works  are  maintained 
at  an  even  temperature  and  are  not  subject  to  expan- 
sion and  contraction  of  the  cylinder  which  affect  the 
trunk  piston. 

2.  Lubrication.    It  is  simpler  to  lubricate  the  cross- 
head  which  does  not  come  in  contact  wth  the  heated 
parts  of  the  engine  as  does  the  trunk  piston. 

3.  Adjustment.    As  the  guides  of  the  crosshead  be- 
come worn  they  can  be  easily  adjusted,  whereas  the 
trunk  piston  does  not  allow  of  adjustment  for  wear. 

4.  Piston    Seizing.      The   possibility    of   the   piston 
seizing  through  overheating  or  improper  lubrication  is 
minimized  when  the  crosshead  is  used. 

The  above  remarks  refer  to  the  single-acting  en- 
gines— with  the  double-acting  type,  of  course  the  cross- 
head  is  always  necessary. 

There  is  a  decided  difference  of  opinion  amongst 
engineers  regarding  the  advantages  of  the  crosshead, 
many  maintaining  that  it  is  unnecessary  and  only  in- 
creases the  cost  of  manufacture  of  the  engine,  that 
it  also  increases  the  overall  dimensions  and  that  the 
trunk  piston  is  a  simpler  design  and  that  any  wear  in 
the  cylinder  is  caused  by  the  piston  rings. 

SPRAYERS  OR  PULVERIZERS. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  all  oil  engines  is  the  sprayer  or  pulver- 
izer through  which  the  fuel  is  injected  into  the  cylinder 


266 


OIL   ENGINES. 


I 
FIG.  116. 


FIG.  117. 


.- 


FIG.  118. 


MARINE   DIESEL   ENGINES. 


267 


or  compression  chamber.  A  great  deal  of  attention 
has  been  devoted  in  recent  years  to  this  part.  Sprayers 
for  Diesel  engines  are  shown  at  Figs.  116  to  120. 

Those  of  more  recent  design  and  used  with  Diesel 
engines  are  shown  in  Figs.  116  to  118.    Fig.  116  shows 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  1 20. 


the  sprayer  used  by  many  makers  and  is  suitable  for 
lighter  oils.  Fig.  117  shows  this  sprayer  as  made  in 
Sweden.  Fig.  118  shows  the  sprayer  adopted  by 
Messrs.  Deutz,  Augsburg-Nurnberg  and  others  where 
it  is  necessary  to  use  a  slight  amount  (about  five 


268  OIL   ENGINES. 

per  cent.)  of  low  flashpoint  fuel  so  as  to  make  the 
ignition  more  rapid  and  allow  combustion  of  the  heavy 
crude  oil  or  tar  oil  which  is  95  per  cent,  of  the  charge 
to  ignite  more  readily.  The  method  of  operation  of 
this  sprayer  is  first,  admitting  into  the  cylinder  a  small 
quantity  of  the  lighter  oil  which  is  followed  by  the 
larger  quantity  of  the  heavy  fuel,  two  oil  injection 
pumps  being  used  for  this  arrangement.  In  this 
sprayer,  Fig.  118,  the  lighter  oil  enters  through  the 
passage  c,  the  heavier  oil  of  higher  flashpoint  through 
the  passage  b,  and  the  lighter  oil  first  enters  and  passes 
to  the  front  of  the  valve.  When  the  valve  is  raised  to 
allow  the  heavier  oil  or  tar  and  air  (through  a)  to 
enter  the  combustion  space,  the  lighter  .oil  is  carried 
before  it  and  enters  first.  Being  of  a  lower  flashpoint 
the  ignition  raises  the  temperature  of  compression  suffi- 
ciently to  ignite  instantaneously  the  mixture  including 
the  heavier  fuel.  Fig.  120  shows  a  sprayer  designed 
for  attaching  horizontally  of  the  "open  nozzle"  type, 
where  the  fuel  enters  at  a  and  is  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  cylinder,  but  further  distant  than  in 
that  shown  at  Fig.  119.  Another  open  type  sprayer  is 
shown  at  Fig.  119  as  made  by  Messrs.  Koerting.  In 
this  arrangement  fuel  enters  the  chamber  a,  which  is  in 
direct  communication  with  the  cylinder,  either  during 
the  suction  stroke  or  before  the  compression  has  ad- 
vanced. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 
VARIOUS   TYPES    OF   MARINE   ENGINES. 

THE  two  cycle  Diesel  engine  built  by  the  firm  of 
Carels  Freres  Ghent  is  shown  at  Fig.  122,  and  in  sec- 
tion at  Fig.  123  and  Fig.  124.  This  engine,  as  shown 
in  the  illustrations  has  six  cylinders  20.08  inch  diam- 
eter and  36.22  inch  stroke,  at  130  R.  P.  M.  it  develops 
1600  actual  or  brake  horsepower.  The  cylinder  is  cast 
in  one  piece  with  the  supporting  A  frame,  a  separate 
cylinder  liner  being  inserted.  The  cylinder  head  cast  in 
one  piece  is  water  jacketed,  each  equipped  with  four 
scavenging  valves,  fuel  inlet  valve,  starting  air  inlet 
valve  and  safety  valve.  Compressed  air  for  injection 
purposes  is  furnished  by  3-stage  air  compressor  of  the 
Reavell  type  operated  from  the  crankshaft  direct  (in 
some  of  the  later  engines  the  injection  air  com- 
pressor is  operated  by  levers  thus  decreasing  the  over- 
all dimension  lengthwise).  The  scavenging  air  pumps 
are  operated  by  levers  as  shown  in  Fig.  123.  Cylinder 
head,  and  cylinder  are  water  cooled,  the  piston  is  also 
cooled  by  oil  or  water  circulation.  Indicator  cards 
taken  from  this  type  engine  are  shown  at  Fig.  121. 

The  starting  or  manoeuvering  of  the  engines  is  ef- 
fected by  means  of  compressed  air  furnished  from  air 
receivers,  in  which  the  pressure  is  maintained  usually 
by  an  auxiliary  engine  and  air  compressor. 
269 


270 


OIL   ENGINES. 


Spring  i"  =  36i  Ibs.  (i  mm.  =  Kg),  M.E.P.  =  76.i  Ibs.  (5.34 
atm:).     Injection  air  pressure  855  Ibs.  (60  atm:).    Rpm.  187. 


Spring  i"  =  36i  Ibs.  (i  mm.  =  i  kg).    M.E.P.  92.5  Ibs.  (6.5 
atm:).    Injection  air  pressure  995  Ibs.  (70  atm:).   Rpm.  187. 

FIG.  121. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    MARINE    ENGINES. 


2/2 


OIL    ENGINES. 


STARTING — REVERSING. — The  two  cycle  marine 
Diesel  engine  here  illustrated  is  controlled  by  means 
of  the  hand  wheels  shown  at  Fig.  125.  A  view  of  a 
part  of  the  camshaft,  manceuvering  shaft,  cams  and 
valve  motion  is  shown  at  Fig.  1253. 


FIG.  123. 

To  start  the  engine  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  com- 
pressed air  in  the  receivers  to  600  or  800  Ibs.  pres- 
sure which  is  done  by  means  of  auxiliary  engine  and 
compressor.  The  crankpin  being  set  just  past  dead 
centre,  compressed  air  enters  the  combustion  space  of 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    MARINE    ENGINES. 


273 


two  (or  three)   of  the  cylinders,  starting  the  pistons 
downward.     In  the  remaining  cylinders  compression 


FIG.  124. 

takes  place  followed  by  ignition  in  the  regular  way. 
Subsequently  fuel  enters  the  cylinders  previously  re- 


274 


OIL    ENGINES. 


ferred  to,  operated  by  compressed  air,  and  they  also 
come  into  operation  in  the  regular  way. 

In  Fig.  125  are  shown  three  hand  wheels  or  levers. 
That  shown  at  i  controls  the  horizontal  manceuvering 
shaft  M  (Fig.  i25a)  placed  above  the  cylinders  which  is 
operated  by  means  of  a  vertical  shaft.  The  lever  shown 


FIG.  125. 

at  3  controls  the  air  motor  indicated  by  5.  The  hand 
wheel  indicated  by  2  is  provided  to  effect  the  same  re- 
sult and  is  used  by  hand  in  emergency.  A  dial  showing 
what  is  occurring  in  each  set  of  cylinders  is  at  4.  In 
Fig.  I25a  is  shown  the  camshaft  A  to  which  is  attached 
the  cam  C  actuating  the  scavenger  valve  lever  B.  The 
lever  at  D  controls  the  fuel  valve  and  E  the  air  starting 
valve.  These  two  valves  being  actuated  through  short 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    MARINE    ENGINES. 


275 


levers  F  and  G  and  not  directly  from  the  cams.  The 
maneuvering  shaft  H  has  a  longitudinal  movement 
and  thus  allows  D  and  G,  when  reversing,  to  be 
brought  in  contact  with  the  astern  cams.  Re- 
versing the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  crank- 
shaft is  effected  in  about  six '  seconds  by  turning 
handle  i  until  indicator  dial  4  points  to  "stop." 
This  has  turned  shaft  H  through  an  angle  allow- 


FIG.  1250. 

ing  cam  K  to  force  out  a  small  sliding  part  lifting 
the  roller  of  the  fuel  valve  lever.  Lever  3  is  now 
moved  to  operate  reversing  motor  (this  can  also  be 
effected  by  hand,  using  wheel)  which  revolves  the  cam- 
shaft through  the  necessary  angle  to  properly  operate 
the  scavenge  valves  after  reversal  and  also  moves  the 
manceuvering  shaft  H  so  as  to  allow  levers  F  and  G 
to  be  in  contact  with  the  astern  cams  controlling,  start- 


2/6  OIL   ENGINES. 

ing  and  fuel  inlet  valves.  Next  handwheel  i  is  moved 
till  dial  4  shows  all  six  cylinders  starting  up  on  air. 
This  is  effected  by  still  further  turning  shaft  H,  thus 
cam  L  allows  sliding  piece  to  be  in  such  position  as  to 
hold  the  starting  valve  lever  out  of  contact  with  its 
cam.  The  next  movement  of  handwheel  i  allows  fuel 
to  enter  three  cylinders  by  still  further  movement  of 
shaft  H  which  rotates  cam  K,  its  nose  then  no  longer 
forces  out  the  sliding  piece  which  is  brought  back  by 
spring  and  allows  the  fuel  valve  cam  through  the  short 
lever  to  come  into  contact  with  its  roller.  The  starting 
valve  for  its  cylinder  is  similarly  put  out  of  operation. 

Further  movement  of  handwheel  i  brings  all  six 
cylinders  in  regular  operation  with  fuel. 

With  the  four  cycle  type  a  complete  duplicate  set  of 
cams  is  provided. 

The  process  of  reversing  is  similar  in  principle  to 
that  outlined  above,  that  is,  it  is  effected  by  means  of 
the  horizontal  sliding  movement  of  the  camshaft  and 
servo  motors  which  having  disengaged  the  cams  and 
the  valve  lever  rollers  allows  the  sliding  motion  of  the 
camshaft  so  as  to  bring  into  action  the  second  set  of 
cams  so  arranged  as  to  open  the  air  and  exhaust  valves 
at  the  proper  period  for  reversal  as  well  as  the  cam 
governing  the  oil  inlet.  Two  or  more  cylinders  being 
operated  by  compressed  air,  while  the  remaining  ones 
have  fuel  inlet  and  commence  regular  operation. 

The  auxiliary  propelling  engines  in  the  cargo  ship 
"France"  are  shown  in  longitudial  section  at  Fig.  126, 
and  in  section  through  the  cylinder  at  Fig.  127.  They 
are  of  the  Schneider-Carels-Diesel  oil  engine  type  of 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    MARINE   ENGINES.  277 


2/8  OIL   ENGINES. 

900  actual  H.  P.  four  cylinder  two  cycle.  Each  cyl- 
inder is  17.716  inch  diameter  and  22.047  mcn  stroke 
and  operates  at  234  R.  P.  M.  Each  engine  is  equipped 
with  an  air  compressor  for  fuel  injection,  scavenging 
air  pump  as  well  as  cooling  water  pumps  and  lubricat- 
ing oil  pumps.  As  shown  in  the  illustration  the 
cylinder  liners  are  inserted  into  the  cylinder  casings 
bolted  to  cast  iron  closed-in  frames  having  large  in- 
spection doors.  Guards  are  provided  inside  the  frame 
to  prevent  the  lubricating  oil  from  entering  the  cyl- 
inder. The  cylinder  head  is  similar  to  that  previously 
described,  being  fitted  with  four  scavenging  valves,  fuel 
inlet  valve  and  safety  valve.  The  cast  iron  pistons  are 
made  in  two  parts,  the  cooling  water  or  oil  for  same 
circulating  through  the  hollow  connecting  bolts.  As 
will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  besides  the  six  piston 
rings  at  the  top  of  the  piston  there  are  two  at  the  lower 
part  also,  to  prevent  escape  of  gases  into  the  crank  case. 
The  valve  motion  is  similar  to  that  previously  described 
for  this  type  of  engine,  the  fuel  and  starting  valve, 
however,  in  this  engine  being  operated  by  the  same 
lever.  Reversing  is  effected  by  longitudinal  move- 
ment of  the  cam  shaft.  The  three-stage  air  compressor 
for  fuel  injection  is  driven  directly  from  the  crank 
shaft,  which  also  furnishes  the  necessary  air  for  charg- 
ing the  air  receivers  for  starting.  The  piston  is  lubri- 
cated by  a  pump  driven  from  the  indicator  shaft 
delivering  the  oil  at  two  opposite  points  of  the  piston 
surface.  The  cooling  medium  of  the  pistons  is  circu- 
lated by  a  pump  through  telescopic  tubes.  A  salt  water 
circulating  pump  delivers  the  cooling  water  first  to  the 


VARIOUS    TYPES   OF    MARINE   ENGINES.  279 


FIG.  127. 


28O  OIL   ENGINES. 

air  cooler,  then  to  the  lubricating  oil  cooler  and  after- 
wards cools  the  circulating  oil  for  cooling  the  piston ; 
it  then  circulates  around  the  fuel  injection  air  com- 
pressor and  cylinder  head.  The  exhaust  gases  pass 
through  a  water- jacketed  pipe  to  the  silencer,  which  is 
fitted  with  baffle  plates,  and  from  thence  to  the  atmos- 
phere. Air  receivers  of  approximately  115  cubic  feet 
capacity  are  charged  from  an  auxiliary  engine  and 
compressor.  The  total  weight  of  the  engine  is  approx- 
imately 1 60  Ibs.  per  actual  H.  P.  The  engine  develops 
1305  I.  H.  P.  Fuel  consumption  0.462  Ibs.,  lubricating 
oil  consumption  0.012  Ibs.,  per  B.  H.  P.  hour. 

NEW  LONDON  SHIP  AND  ENGINE  COMPANY. — The 
four  cycle  marine  Diesel  engine  as  built  by  the  New 
London  Ship  and  Engine  Company  is  shown  at  Fig. 
128  and  also  in  section  at  Fig.  129,  which  illustrates 
the  specially  designed  valve  motion  consisting  of  two 
camshafts  placed  in  bearings  attached  to  either  side  of 
the  enclosed  crankcase.  The  camshaft  on  one  side 
through  a  lever  operates  the  exhaust  valve,  that  on 
the  other  side  the  air  inlet  valve,  the  fuel  inlet  and 
fuel  supply  pump.  This  engine  is  built  with  four  cyl- 
inders (120  B.  H.  P.)  and  six  cylinders  (180  B.  H.  P.) 
each  being  9"  diameter  and  12^"  stroke.  Each  engine 
operates  at  350  R.  P.  M.  The  weight  of  the  flywheel 
is  about  2000  Ibs.  The  total  weight  of  the  engine  8000 
Ibs.  The  engine  being  non-reversible,  a  special  design 
of  reverse  gear  is  used.  The  compressed  air  at  about 
looo  Ibs.  pressure  necessary  for  injection  with  the  fuel 
is  furnished  by  a  2-stage  compressor  placed  at  the  for- 
ward end  of  engine  and  actuated  directly  from  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    MAUtNE    ENGINES. 


28l 


282  OIL   ENGINES. 

crankshaft.  The  cylinders  and  cylinder  head  are  cast 
in  one  piece,  the  air  inlet  valve  and  housing  and  the  ex- 
haust valve  being  arranged  horizontally  and  the  fuel 
inlet  or  spray  valve  being  vertical  as  shown  at  Fig.  129. 
The  governor  placed  in  the  flywheel  acts  through  levers 
on  the  suction  valve  of  the  fuel  supply  pump  regulat- 
ing the  amount  of  fuel  as  required  by  the  load.  The 
cooling  water  is  supplied  by  centrifugal  pump  operated 
from  the  flywheel.  Lubrication  to  all  parts  is  effected 
by  force  feed  pump. 

These  makers  also  build  two  cycle  type  marine  Diesel 
engines  with  enclosed  crankcase  in  sizes  from  30x3  to 
2000  H.  P.  as  well  as  the  same  type  with  open  A-frame 
crosshead  and  crosshead  guides  from  500  to  2500 
H.  P.,  each  of  these  types  is  single  acting.  The  latter 
operates  at  a  compartively  slow  speed.  In  both  types 
the  exhausting  of  the  gases  is  effected  by  the  usual 
method  of  exhaust  ports  in  the  cylinder  walls  and 
scavenging  valves  placed  in  the  cylinder  head  through 
which  the  low  pressure  air  enters,  thus  thoroughly 
ejecting  the  burnt  gases.  The  fuel  injection  high  pres- 
sure air  is  furnished  by  a  two  stage  compressor  oper- 
ated directly  from  the  crankshaft,  this  compressor  has 
greater  capacity  than  is  required  for  injection  pur- 
poses, the  excess  air  being  stored  and  is  employed  for 
starting  and  reversing  purposes.  Force  feed  lubrica- 
tion is  used  throughout,  the  lubricant  being  cooled  and 
contained  in  a  closed  circuit.  Reversing  and  change  of 
speed  are  controlled  by  one  hand  wheel. 

The  two  cycle  enclosed  crankcase  engines  operate  at 
a  speed  of  480  R.  P.  M.  with  the  300  H.  P.  and  270 


VARIOUS    TYPES   OF    MARINE   ENGINES.  283 


FIG.  129. 


284  OIL    ENGINES. 

R.  P.  M.  with  the  2000  H.  P.  six  cylinder  construction. 
Total  weight  is  about  50  Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P.  The  heavier 
type  of  2  cycle  engines  with  A  frame  construction 
operate  at  slower  speed  and  weigh  approximately  100 
Ibs.  per  B.  H.  P. 

The  two-cycle  Diesel  oil  engine  as  made  by  Messrs. 
Sulzer,  of  Winterthur,  Switzerland,  is  shown  in  section 
at  Figs.  130  and  131.*  It  has  been  made  of  the  four- 
and  six-cylinder  construction.  As  will  be  seen  from 
the  illustration,  it  is  of  the  single-acting  type,  the  ex- 
haust ports  in  the  cylinder  being  uncovered  by  the 
piston  at  the  end  of  its  downward  stroke,  the  scaveng- 
ing air  entering  through  the  two  valves  placed  in  the 
cylinder  head.  These  makers  are  also  constructing 
their  engines  with  air  inlet  ports,  thus  eliminating  the 
scavenging  air  inlet  valves.  This  engine  is  equipped 
with  a  double-acting  air  scavenging  pump  operated 
from  the  crank  shaft  and  also  two-stage  air  compressor 
furnishing  high-pressure  compressed  air  for  injection 
purposes.  Forced  feed  lubrication  is  provided  with  all 
bearings.  Fig.  132  shows  in  section  a  six-cylinder 
Diesel  oil  engine  as  made  by  the  Maschinen  Fabrik 
Augsburg  Nurnburg  (M.  A.  N.),  also  of  the  two-cycle 
type.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  this  engine 
has  an  upper  and  lower  cylinder  in  which  pistons 
operate.  The  upper  cylinder  is  the  motor  cylinder, 
the  lower  cylinder  being  used  for  furnishing  the 

*The  illustrations  Figs.  130  and  132  are  reproduced  by  kind 
permission  from  the  Am.  Soc.  of  Mech.  Engineers  Journal, 
June,  1912,  being  embodied  in  an  address  therein  by  the  late 
Dr.  Rudolf  Diesel. 


VARIOUS    TYPES   OF    MARINE    ENGINES.  285 


286 


OIL    ENGINES. 


scavenging  air  the  compressed  air  for  injection  pur- 
poses, being  furnished  by  the  two-stage  air  compressors 
placed  in  line  with  the  other  cylinders  at  the  end  of 
the  engine. 

THE  JUNKERS  OIL  ENGINE. — Briefly  described,  this 


FIG.  131. 

engine  operates  on  the  two  cycle  plan,  it  consists  of 
motor  cylinder  of  greater  length  than  other  engines  in 
which  operate  two  pistons.  The  piston  nearer  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    MARINE   ENGINES.  287 


288  OIL   ENGINES. 

crankshaft  is  connected  to  its  crank  in  the  ordinary 
way,  the  piston  farthest  from  the  crankshaft  moves 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  previously 
named  piston,  and  is  attached  at  its  back  end  to  side- 
rods  supported  on  each  side  of  the  cylinder,  which  are 
actuated  through  connecting  rods  from  cranks  each 
side  of  the  main  crank.  Thus  a  three  throw  crank  is 
required,  the  two  outside  cranks  being  in  line  with 
each  other,  and  are  set  at  180°  from  the  main  centre 
crank.  In  the  motor  cylinder  walls  are  two  sets  of 
ports,  one  set  for  air  inlet,  the  other  for  exhaust. 

The  method  of  operation  is  as  follows:  As  com- 
bustion commences  the  pistons  travel  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. Toward  the  end  of  the  stroke  the  forward  piston 
first  uncovers  the  exhaust  ports  then  the  back  piston 
uncovers  the  air  inlet  ports,  allowing  pure  air  at  a 
slight  pressure  to  enter  the  cylinder  and  scavenge  it 
thoroughly,  on  the  backward  stroke  the  pistons  ap- 
proach each  other  again  performing  compression,  at 
the  dead  centre  fuel  is  injected  and  expansion  begins 
again.  For  marine  service  this  engine  is  designed  with 
two  cylinders  placed  tandemwise  and  having  four 
pistons  in  all. 

Many  advantages  are  claimed  for  this  design 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  simplicity  of  cyl- 
inder casting  and  the  absence  of  strains  through  it, 
complete  balance  of  the  reciprocating  parts  improved 
lubrication  of  the  pistons  and  cylinders,  high  aggre- 
gate piston  speed,  the  absence  of  complicated  cylinder 
heads,  ideal  combustion  space  and  decreased  loss  of 
heat  to  the  cylinder  water  jackets. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
LARGE  STATIONARY  ENGINES 

IN  recent  years  many  engineering  firms  in  the  United 
States  have  taken  up  the  manufacture  of  oil  engines, 
nearly  all  of  them  being  of  the  Diesel  cycle  of  opera- 
tion. Some  of  these  engines  are  being  made  of  the 
vertical  and  others  of  the  horizontal  type,  the  former 
being  largely  made  of  the  open  crank  case  construc- 
tion ;  that  is,  with  the  cylinders  supported  on  A  frames, 
thus  allowing  free  access  to  all  bearings  and  affording 
opportunity  for  inspection  while  the  engine  is  in  opera- 
tion. The  latter  are  being  made  by  different  makers 
both  of  the  single-acting  and  double-acting  type  operat- 
ing on  the  two-cycle  principle  and  also  on  the  four- 
cycle plan. 

THE  SNOW  CRUDE  OIL  ENGINE. — The  Snow  Steam 
Pump  Co.  are  now  building  two-  and  four-cycle  hori- 
zontal single-acting  oil  engines  operating  on  the  Diesel 
cycle,  and  are  shown  in  Figs.  133  and  134.  The  four- 
cycle engine  shown  at  Fig.  133  has  the  air  inlet  exhaust 
and  fuel  inlet  valves  placed  horizontally  in  the  cylinder 
head,  which  are  operated  by  cams  placed  on  a  hori- 
zontal cam  shaft  mounted  at  the  rear  of  the  cylinder 
head  and  actuated  by  gears  from  an  intermediate  shaft 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  fuel  injection 
high  pressure  air  is  furnished  by  a  two-stage  air  com- 
289 


290 


OIL    ENGINES. 


LARGE   STATIONARY   ENGINES.  29! 

pressor  actuated  directly  from  the  crank  shaft  by  crank 
disc.  The  Jahns  type  of  governor  controls  the  speed 
of  the  engine  by  operating  through  levers  on  the  fuel 
supply  pumps,  lengthening  or  shortening  the  stroke  of 
same  by  a  wedge  arrangement.  The  governor  is 
mounted  on  the  side  of  the  main  frame,  and  this  allows 
easy  removal  of  cylinder  head  when  required.  Lubri- 
cation of  the  piston  is  furnished  by  a  Richardson  posi- 
tive force  feed  pump,  which  also  supplies  lubricant  for 
the  valve  stems  and  air  compressors.  This  make  of 
engine  is  equipped  with  cross-head  operating  in  guides 
placed  on  the  main  frame  of  the  engine,  the  piston 
being  shorter  than  the  ordinary  trunk  type  of  piston 
used  where  cross-head  is  not  employed.  Reference 
has  previously  been  made  to  the  advantages  obtained 
by  the  use  of  the  cross-head. 

The  two-cycle  type  of  engine  is  shown  at  Fig.  134. 
This  engine  operates  on  the  two-cycle  principle,  as  pre- 
viously described.  Exhaust  ports  are  placed  in  the 
cylinder  wall  and  are  uncovered  by  the  movement  of 
the  piston  at  the  end  of  its  stroke.  In  the  two-cycle 
type  scavenging  air  inlet  valves  are  placed  in  the  cylin- 
der head  with  the  fuel  oil  inlet  valve ;  the  low-pressure 
air  necessary  for  scavenging  is  furnished  by  the  air 
compressor  placed  ahead  of  the  two-stage  air  injec- 
tion compressor  as  furnished  with  the  four-cycle  type. 
The  low-pressure  scavenging  air  passes  through  a  re- 
ceiver placed  in  the  main  frame  of  the  engine.  The 
valves  are  operated  by  the  same  method  as  that  de- 
scribed with  the  four-cycle  engine  and  the  governor 
operates  on  the  fuel  supply  pumps  in  a  similar  way. 


292 


OIL    ENGINES. 


LARGE   STATIONARY   ENGINES. 


293 


The  makers  guarantee  the  successful  operation  of  this 
engine  on  the  lowest  grade  of  fuel  or  crude  oils,  the 
fuel  consumption  being  at  full  load  0.5  of  a  Ib. ;  f  load, 
0.55  Ib. ;  £  load,  0.6  Ib. 


Admission  valv 


Cyi.  head  top  plat 


FIG.  135. 

THE  BUSCH  SULZER  BROS.  DIESEL  ENGINE.— The 
four  cycle  Diesel  engine  manufactured  by  this  com- 
pany in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  is  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  135. 


294 


OIL    ENGINES. 


LARGE    STATIONARY    ENGINES.  295 

This  illustration  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  differ- 
ent valves,  sprayer,  etc.,  as  hitherto  built  by  this  firm.* 

The  later  type  of  vertical  four  cycle  four  cylinder 
500  H.  P.  Diesel  engine  now  being  built  by  this  com- 
pany is  shown  at  Fig.  136.  As  will  be  seen  from  the 
illustration,  the  multi-stage  air  compressor  for  fur- 
nishing the  injection  air  at  about  1000  Ibs.  pressure  is 
now  operated  directly  from  the  main  crankshaft  by 
crank  disc  at  the  forward  end.  The  crankcase  is  of 
the  enclosed  type  reinforced  with  vertical  tie  rods — 
lubrication  to  all  bearings  is  supplied  by  force  feed 
pump.  The  oil  inlet,  air  inlet,  and  exhaust  valves 
placed  in  the  cylinder  head  are  operated  by  levers  from 
the  horizontal  camshaft  which  revolves  in  enclosed 
oil  case.  The  governor  is  mounted  on  the  vertical 
shaft  operated  from  the  crankshaft  which  in  turn  is 
geared  to  the  horizontal  camshaft  placed  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  cylinders. 

The  later  type  De  La  Vergne  "FH"  horizontal 
single  cylinder  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  137.  This  type 
of  engine  has  been  fully  described  and  illustrated  with 
sectional  views  in  Chap.  XII. 

In  this  later  type  the  method  of  governing  is  im- 
proved— a  double  overflow  by-pass  valve  is  employed 
which  is  regulated  directly  by  the  governor  instead  of 
the  method  previously  described  where  the  governor 
operates  directly  on  the  fuel  supply  pump.  It  will  be 
seen  from  this  illustration  that  the  governor  is  now 
placed  on  the  main  frame  instead  of  being  supported 
from  the  cylinder  head  as  on  the  previous  engines.  This 

*This  type  of  engine  is  fully  described  in  Chapter  XII. 


LARGE   STATIONARY   ENGINES.  2Q7 

design  relieves  the  strain  of  the  cylinder  head  and 
allows  a  greater  access  to  it.  These  engines  are  now 
built  in  various  sizes  in  the  single,  twin  and  four  cyl- 
inder type  from  65  to  800  H.  P. 


INDEX  TO  APPENDIX 


Advantages  of  Diesel  en- 
gine     253 

Air    pressure 272 

Attention    required 253 

Busch    Sulzer    Bros,    en- 
gine     293 

Carel  Freres  type 269 

Coal  consumption,   steam- 
ship     234 

Cooling  water   262,  278 

Cross    head 2^5 

Cylinder   head 263 

De  La  Vergne  type 295 

Details    of    construction.  .259 
Diagrammatic     views,     2- 

and    4-cycle 259 

Diagrams      valve      move- 
ments    259 

Disadvantages    Diesel   en- 
gine     _'55 

Exhaust   gases 280 

Exhaust    ports 292 

"France"  ship  engines 276 

Fuel  consumption,  Diesel 

engine  254,  293 

Fuel  consumption,  2-  and 

4-cycle   257 


"Junkers"  engine  ____  256,  286 


Lubrication 


263 


Manoeuvering    ......  269,   274 

M.  A.  N.  engine  .........  284 

New    London     Ship    and 
Engine  Co  ...........  280 

Pistons    .................  264 

Pulverizers    .............  265 

Reversing   ..........  272,  274 

Scavenging    .............  261 

Snow  crude-oil  engine...  290 
Space    occupied  ..........  253 

Speed  of  engines.  ..  .280,  282 

Sprayers    ................  265 

Starting    ................  272 

Sulzer  Bros,  engine  ......  284 

Two-cycle    engines.  .269,   282 
Types    Diesel   marine  ____  .256 

Valve  motion  ............  262 

Weight    of   engine  .......  280 

Weights,  comparison  of..  255 


299 


INDEX 


ABEL  oil-tester 90 

Actual  horse-power 63 

Air    compressing,     horse- 
power required 125 

Air-compressor   at    differ- 
ent altitudes 129 

Air-compressors 123,  204 

Air  inlet  choked 77 

Air-inlet  valve.  .12,  39,  57,  61, 
78,  145,  172,  175 
Air-inlet       valve,       auto- 
matic  12,  77,  156 

Air-pump  13 

Air  suction,  noise  of.  ...    122 

Air-suction  pipe 78 

Air-supply   (Campbell)  ...  151 

Air-supply    (Crossley) 149 

Air-supply   (Priestman)  .  .  152 

Analyses,  oil 232 

Asbestos  58 

Assembling  oil  engines...   53 
Atmospheric  line 70.  71 

BALANCE  weights 30 

Balancing  crank-shaft. ...  28 

Balancing  fly-wheel 30 

Balancing  formula 29 

Barker  Engine 197 

Bates,   F.   H 221 

Bearing  caps 55 


Bearings,  crank-shaft.. 40,  158 

Bearings,  outside 172 

Bearings,  pressure  on....  40 

Bearings,  scraping  in 54 

Beau  de  Rochas  Cycle, 

15,  16,  76,  215 

Beaumont  crude  oil 232 

Belt  centres 115 

Belt,  link 113,  115 

Belt,  loose 115 

Belt,  size  of 116 

B.  H.  P.,  to  calculate....  65 

Brake,  attaching 64 

Brake,  horse-power.. 23.  63,  64 
Britannia  Co.'s  Engine...  192 

CAMPBELL,  governing, 

13.  151,   175 

Campbell    oil    engine    de- 
scribed    172,  250 

Campbell   starting 150 

Cams  37 

Cams,  setting 60 

Circulating  water-pipes.  ..  97 

Clerk,  Dugald 87 

Clutches,  friction 137 

Clutches,   friction,   advan- 
tages of 137 

Clutches,    friction,  B   and 
C  type. 138 


254 


INDEX 


Coal  oil I 

Combustion,  bad 89,  153 

Combustion,  complete 90 

Compression  (Diesel)  .  ..5,  25 
Compression      in      crank- 
chamber  180 

Compression,  increasing..  79 

Compression,  irregular 19 

Compression  line 76,  78 

Compression   pressure, 

22,  25,  164 
Connecting-rod  bearings      56 

Connecting-rods 31,  32 

Connecting-rods,  diameter  33 
Connecting-rods,  phosphor 

bronze  31 

Cooling  towers 100 

Cooling  water 19,  201 

Cooling  water-tanks 96 

Copper  ring 58 

Cost  of  installation 209 

Crank-pin 42,   175 

Crank-pin,   dimensions....  42 

Crank-pin,  size  of 40 

Crank-shaft 26 

Crank-shaft,  balancing...  28 
Crank-shaft  bearings.  .42,  158 
Crank-shaft,  strength  of..  26 
Crossley  engine  described.  168 
Crossley  engine,  portable. 203 

Crossley  governing 171 

Crossley  measuring  device.  168 

Crossley  starting 148 

Crude  oil  vaporizer.  .220,  231 

Crude  oil,  Beaumont 232 

Crude  oil,  California 239 

Cundall  engine  described.  172 


Cycles,  different,  discussed  18 

Cyclic  variation 35,  36 

Cylinder  clearance 25 

Cylinder  cover .-. .  25 

Cylinder   lubricating  oil..  140 

Cylinder  lubricators 58 

Cylinder,  two  parts 57 

Cylinders,    different    types 

22,  24 

DEFECTIVE  air-supply 164 

Defective  oil-supply 164 

Denton,    Prof 218 

De  la  Vergne  engine 

129,  185,  226 

Diagram,  analyzing 77 

Diagram,  good  working..   76 

Diesel  governing 217 

Diesel  heat  balance 218 

Diesel  motor 5,  210 

Diesel  starting 210 

Direct-connected       engine 

and  dynamo 117 

Direction  of  rotation,   re- 
versing     154 

Distance  pieces 55 

Draining,  water 104 

Dynamo  fly-wheel 115 

Dynamometer  or  brake. . .  64 

"ECONOMIST"  Retort 221 

Effective  horse-power 63 

Efficiencies,  thermal,  com- 
pared    87 

Efficiency,  increase  of....  83 
Efficiency,  mechanical.  .23,  86 
Efficiency,  thermal 86 


INDEX 


255 


Electric  igniter. ..  .5,   15,   152 
Electric  lighting  plant,  in- 
stallation of 113 

Electric  lighting,  portable.2OO 

Engine    (Campbell) 172 

Engine    (Cundall) 172 

Engine  frame 43 

Engine  (Hornsby-Akroyd) 

140,  182,  211 

Engine,   ideal   heat 21 

Engine  (Mietz  &  Weiss).  178 

Engine,  portable 200 

Engine    (Priestman) 175 

Engines    (Barker) 197 

Engines  (Britannia  Co.'s)  192 

Engines    (Crossley) 168 

Engines    (Crossley  porta- 
ble)      202 

Engines     (American     Oil 

Engine  Co.'s) 194 

Engines  driving  dynamos..ni 
Engines,  electric  lighting..  46 
Engines  (Fairbanks- 

Morse)  225 

Engines  (Traction) 205 

Engines,  knocking. .  .159,  164 

Engines,  large  size 206 

Engines  (Mietz  &  Weiss 

portable) 203 

Engines,  regulation  of.  ..  .117 
Engines,  running,  general 

remarks 153 

Engines,  running,  light...  145 

Erecting  oil  engines 53 

Exhaust  bends 41 

Exhaust,  choked 83 

Exhaust  gases... 90,  153,  165 


Exhaust  line 76,  83 

Exhaust  silencers 100 

Exhaust  temperature no 

Exhaust   valve 13 

Exhaust  valve,  opening  of.  76 

Exhaust  washer 101 

Expansion   line 76,  81 

Explosion  20 

Explosion  in  silencer. ..  .166 
Explosive  mixture. ..  .10.  15 

FAIRBANKS  Morse  Engine.225 

Filter  oil 49,  146,  160 

Fire  insurance 244 

Flashing  point  of  oil i 

Flashing  point  to  test....  90 
Flickering  of  incandescent  ' 

lights  119 

Fluctuation  in  speed 37 

Fly-wheels 35,  119 

Fly-wheels,  energy  of 35 

Fly-wheels  for  dynamo..  115 
Fly-wheels,  formula  for. .  37 
Fly-wheels,  keying  on....  57 
Fly-wheels,  peripheral 

speed  37 

Foundations  113 

Four-cycle   15 

Frame,  engine 43 

Friction-clutches    137 

Friction-clutches,     advan- 
tages of 13? 

Friction-clutches,    B    and 

C  type 138 

Frost,  provision  for 99 

Fuel-consumption  test....  87 
Fuel  injection. . .  .10,  165,  216 


256 


INDEX 


Fuel,  injection  of 53 

Fuel  oil-tank 13,  49,  168, 

172,   174,    176.    177,   180 
Fuels 230,  236 

GASES,  exhaust 90 

Gear,  skew 43 

Gear,  spur 43,  160 

Gear,  starting 106 

Governing  (Campbell), 

13,  I5i,  175 
Governing     (centrifugal), 

15,  168,  171,  172,  175 
Governing   (Crossley)..  .171 

Governing  devices 44,  48 

Governing   (Diesel) 217 

Governing        (Mietz       & 

Weiss)    179 

Governing      (Priestman), 

15,  i?6 
Governor,         hit-and-miss 

type   45 

Governor  hunting 148 

Governor  parts,  renewing.  160 
Governor,  pendulum  type.  45 
Governor,  Porter  type. . . .  180 

Governor,  Rites 45,   189 

Gravitation  (fuel)  ....  12,  175 
Gravitation  system 96 

HEAT  losses 22 

Heat,  utilization  of  waste..  107 

Heated  air n 

Heat  balance 87 

Heat  balance    (Diesel)  ..  .218 

Heating  lamp 8,  n,  12 

Heating  lamp  instructions.i4i 


Horizontal     and     vertical 
types 50 

Hornsby-Akroyd,   instruc- 
tions for  running, 

140,  182,  211 

Hornsby-Akroyd,    method 
of  vaporizing 9 

Hornsby-Akroyd  oil   sup- 
ply   10,  180 

Hornsby-Akroyd  Traction 
Engine 205 

Hornsby-Akroyd     vertical 
type   187 

Horse-power  63,  66 


ICE  and  refrigerating  ma- 
chines   133 

Igniter,  electric. ..  .5,   15,  152 
Igniter  (Hornsby-Akroyd)     2 

Igniters   2 

Igniters  (flame) 2 

Igniters,  heating 61 

Ignition 140 

Ignition  (electric) 2,  7 

Ignition     (high    compres- 
sion)  2,  215 

Ignition  (hot  surface)  2,  7,  10 
Ignition  (hot  tube), 

2,  7,  n,  148,  151 

Ignition  line 76 

Ignition  line,  late 80 

Ignition  line,  too  early.  .  79 

Ignition,  regulating 80 

Ignition,    retarding 81 

Impulse  on  piston 17 

Incandescent  lights 116 


257 


Incandescent  lights,   flick- 
ering of 119 

Indicated  horse-power.. 23,  66 
Indicator  attaching  to  en- 
gine      71 

Indicator  cock 66 

Indicator,    Crosby 67 

Indicator  diagram, 

75,  170,  174,  184,  218 
Indicator    diagram,     light 

spring   88 

Indicator,   diagram   meas- 
uring    73 

Indicator  in  place 64 

Indicator,     left    or     right 

hand 70 

Indicator  reducing  motion  71 

Indicator    springs 69 

Ingredients     for     founda- 
tions   113 

Installation,  Cost  of 209 

Instructions    for    running 

Hornsby-Akroyd  140 

Instructions    for    running 

oil  engines 139 

Insurance,  Fire 244 

JOHNSTON  oil  Engine 191 

Junk  rings 55 

KNOCKING  in  engine.  .159,  164 

LARGE  size  Engines 206 

Leakage  in  crank-chamber  19 
Leakage    of    piston-rings, 

61,  78,  165 
Leakage  of  valves 78 


Leakage  of  water  into  cyl- 
inder   63,  166 

Lights,  incandescent n6 

Line,  atmospheric 70,  71 

Line,  compression 76,  78 

Line,  exhaust 76,  83 

Line,  expansion 76,  81 

Link  belt 113,   115 

Loose  belt 115 

Loss  of  power 165 

Lubricating  cylinder  oil..  140 

Lubricators,  cylinder 58 

Lucke    &    Verplank    Va- 
porizer      8 


MAGNETO  4 

Measuring  device  (Cross- 
ley)    168 

Mechanical  efficiency, 

23,  Si,  86 

M.  E.  P 67,  81 

M.  E.  P.  regulated 47 

Method      of      vaporizing 

(Crossley)  n 

Method      of      vaporizing 

(Campbell)   12 

Method      of      vaporizing 

(Hornsby-Akroyd)    ..    9 
Method      of      vaporizing 

(Priestman)    13 

Method       of       governing 

(Campbell)    175 

Method       of       governing 

(Diesel)   217 

Method       of       governing 

(Mietz  &  Weiss) 178 


258 


INDEX 


Method       of       governing 

(Priestman)    176 

Metric  measures 241 

Mietz     &     Weiss     engine 
described, 

52,  128,  178,  211,  203 
Mietz     &     Weiss     engine 

governing 179 

Mixture  oil,  vapor  and  air  14 
Moore,  C.  C.  &  Co. .  .206,  222 

Motor,  Diesel 6,  210 

Multi-cyclinder  engines...   51 

NORRIS,  William 26 

OIL,  Beaumont 232 

Oil,  California 239 

Oil,  crude 231 

Oil  cylinder,  lubricating...  140 
Oil  engines,  driving  dy- ' 

namos  in 

Oil  engines,  instructions 

for  running 139 

Oil  filter 49,  146,  160 

Oil  injection 10,  216 

Oil  inlet 12 

Oil  measurer  (Crossley)..  n 

Oil-pump 9,  143,  172 

Oil-pump,  testing 147 

Oil  supply  (Campbell)...  151 
Oil  supply  (Crossley)  ...  .171 

Oil  supply  (Diesel) 215 

Oil  supply  (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd)  182 

Oil  supply,  limiting.  .  .89,  164 
Oil  supply  (Mietz  & 

Weiss)    177 


Oil-supply  pipes.. 57,  61,    146 
Oil  supply  (Priestman)..   15 

Oil-supply  pump 178 

Oil  sprayers 13 

Oil,   viscosity  of 93 

Otto  cycle 15,  76 

Otto  patent 19 

PARAFFIN    ( Scotch) i 

Petroleum i 

Petroleum  (crude) 

2,  220,  231 

Petroleum.      See   Tables. 

Pipe,   air-suction 78 

Piston 33,  35.  41,  153 

Piston,  blowing, 165 

Piston,  fitting 55 

Piston  lubrication.5o,  158,  170 
Piston-rings, 

34,  55,  56,  154,  158,  159 

Piston  speed 22,  34 

Piston,  taking  out 158 

Piston,   water-jacketed 34 

Planimeters    72 

Planimeters,  directions  for 

using   74 

Plants,  pumping 131 

Portable  engines 200 

Portable      engines,      con- 
struction of 200 

Port  openings 39 

Pressure  of  explosion....  20 
Pressure   on   bearings....  40 

Priestman  engine 14,  175 

Priestman,  governing.  15,   176 

Priestman,  starting 152 

Priming  cup   (Crossley)  ..148 


INDEX 


259 


Processes    in    cylinder    of 

engine  ' 59 

Products  of  combustion..   18 

Pump,   oil-supply 49 

Pump,  water-circulating...  98 

Pumping-plants 130,  131 

Pumps,  efficiency  of 133 

Pumps,    horse-power     re- 
quired    132 

RADIATORS  for  cooling —  99 
Ratio,  air  and  oil  vapour..  7 
Refrigerating  machines. .  .133 
Refrigerating  machines, 

horse-power  required..i36 
Refrigerating       machines, 

rating  of 133 

Regulation  of  engines. ..  .117 

Retort,    "Economist" 221 

Reversing  direction  of  ro- 
tation   154 

Rhumkorff  coil 5 

Rings,  junk 55 

Rings,  piston, 

34,  55,  56,  154,  158,  159 

Rites  governor 45,   189 

Robinson,  Wm..  .178,  220,  250 
Running  oil  engines 139 

SELF-STARTER  105 

Self-starter         (Hornsby- 

Akroyd) 105 

Silencers,  exhaust 100 

Simplicity  of  construction  22 

Single  cycle 16 

Skew-gear   43 

Specific  gravity...:,  232,  235 


Speed  counter  (Hill) 85 

Speed,  regulation  of 154 

Sprayer   13,  14 

Spray  holes 147 

Spur  gear 43,  160 

Starting   7,  n,  215 

Starting  (Campbell  type)  150 
Starting  (Crossley  type). .148 
Starting  (Diesel  motor).. 215 
Starting,  difficulties  of 

61,  143,  164 

Starting  gear 106 

Starting        (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd)   142 

Starting (Priestman  type). 152 

Starting   valve 215 

Straight  line  principle 175 

Stroke,  ratio 26 

Suction  line 76 

TACHOMETERS  83 

Tachometers,  portable. ...  84 

Tank   49 

Tank,  fuel  consumption..  64 

Tank,  water 141 

Temperature     of     cooling 

water 81,  100 

Temperature,  exhaust no 

Test   (Diesel) 220 

Test  (Hornsby-Akroyd) 

247,  250 

Test    (Priestman) 178 

Test  (Various) 247-251 

Testing  compression.  .61,  164 
Testing  flash-point. .  .90,  232 
Testing  fuel  consumption  87 
Testing  new  engine 59 


260 


Testing,  object  of 59 

Testing  oil-pump 147 

Testing  sprayer 61 

Testing  water-jackets 63 

Thermal  efficiency 86,  218 

Timing  of  ignition 162 

Traction   Engine 205 

Tube  igniter 3,  5,  163 

Two-cycle  system.  .15, .44,  177 

VALVE,  air  and  exhaust, 

39,  57,  MS,  158,  216 

Valve,  back  pressure 146 

Valve  by-pass 45.   180 

Valve  closing-springs 39 

Valve  exhaust  opening...  60 

Valve,  lift  of 78 

Valve  mechanisms 43 

Valve,  overflow,  oil 146 

Valve  starting 215 

Valves  41 

Valves  and  valve-boxes..  38 
Vapor  inlet-valve.. 1 1,  12,  150 

Vaporizer 7 

Vaporizer,  advantages  of. .     S 

Vaporizer    (Campbell) 5 

Vaporizer  (Crossley)..n,  150 
Vaporizer,  difficulties  of . .     9 


Vaporizer    heated    by    ex- 
haust      14 

Vaporizer,  heating 61,  152 

Vaporizer     (Hornsby-Ak- 

royd)   9 

Vaporizer    (Priestman).. .   13 

Vaporizer,  to  heat 141 

Vaporizer  valve-box 145 

Vaporizer,  water-jacketed.  141 

Vaporizers,  crude-oil 220 

Vertical  engines 51 

Vibrator  6 

Viscosity  of  oil 93 

WASHER,  exhaust 101 

Waste  heat,  utilization  of.. 107 
Water-circulating  pipes...  97 
Water-circulating  pump. .  98 

Water   cooling 201 

Water  draining 104 

Water  in  exhaust  pipe 104 

Water-jackets 57,  212 

Water  leakage 166 

Water    injection 52 

Water  space 25 

Water-tanks,  capacity  of..  96 
Water-tanks,  cooling.  .96,  141 
Worm-gear  43,  160 


DE  LA  VERGNE 

OIL  ENGINES 
FOR  ALL  PURPOSES 


TYPE  "  HA  " 
HORIZONTAL  10  TO  250  H.F. 


TYPE  "  FH  " 
HORIZONTAL  85  TO  250  H.P. 


TYPE  "  S  " 
VERTICAL  4  TO  25  H.P. 


Will  operate  on  crude,  fuel  or  kerosene  oil 

WE  GUARANTEE  THAT  THESE  ENGINES 
WILL  PRODUCE  ONE  BRAKE  HORSE  POWER 
HOUR  ON  LESS  THAN  ONE  POUND  OF  OIL 

These  engines  will  reduce  your  power  expenses 
from  50  to  75  per  cent. 

//  interested  write  for  Catalogue  G. 

DE  LA  VERGNE 

MACHINE  CO. 

Foot  of  East  138th  Street,  New  York 


ISOLATED 
PLANT 


A  magazine  devoted  to  spreading  and  making 
public  FACTS  regarding  the  Installation  and 
Operation  of  Private  Power  Plants.  Also 
gives  information  in  regard  to  Preventable 
Wastes  in  Isolated  Plants  and  Mistakes  in 
Plant  Designs. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

The  Isolated  Plant  Publishing  Co. 

43-45  West  34th  Street,  New  York  City 

Price,  10  cents  a  copy  50  cents  a  year 

j  :  •  i          '      :     . 

Send  for  sample  copy 

P.  R.  Moses,  E.E.,  Editor. 
Rossiter  Holbrook,  Gen.  Mngr.  • 


GOULDS 

Efficient  Triplex  Power  Pumps 

When  in  the  market  for 

pumping  equipment 

look  up  Goulds  Pumps 

for  every  service 

They  are  absolutely  the  most 
efficient  pumps  on  the  mar- 
ket today.  Send  us  your 
conditions  and  we  will  guar- 
antee you  an  efficiency  which 
will  surprise  you.  Goulds 
Pumps  are  not  cheap 
pumps,  but  they  are 
the  best  pumps 
made. 


New  York  Boston 
Philadelphia  Chicago 
Pittsburg  Los  Angeles 


THE  GAS  ENGINE 


An  84  page  monthly  devoted  to  gas, 
gasoline  and  oil  engines  —  station- 
ary, marine,  automobile,  aeronautic. 

Practical    «^     Semi-Technical 

Plants  illustrated  Designs  shown 

Operation  explained 

"  Answers  to  Inquiries"  column 

Specimen  Free 

$1.00  per  Year 
Canada  $1.25  Foreign  $1.50 

Gas  Engine  Calculator — a  neat  card- 
board device  to  tell  H.P.  of  engines 
without  calculation.  50c.  postpaid. 

Send  for  our  catalogue  "  D  "  of  Gas  Engine 
Books.  We  publish  and  carry  in  stock 
the  largest  line  of  books  of  this  character. 

The  Gas  Engine  Publishing  Co, 
202  E.  7th  St.  Cincinnati,  O. 


MIETZ  &  WEISS 

OIL  ENGINES 

For  All  Purposes  Are  the  Cheapest  Power  on  Earth. 
In  Sizes  from  1  to  200  H.P. 

MARINE  AND  STATIONARY 

85,000  H.P.  in  Operation. 


Used  by  the  U.  S.  and  Foreign  Governments. 
OPERATE  ON  KEROSENE,   FUEL  OR   CRUDE 

OILS  AND  ALCOHOL. 
Durable,  Simple,  Reliable,  Safe  and  Economical. 

AUGUST  MIETZ 

123-138  MOTT  ST.       87-89  ELIZABETH  ST. 
NEW  YORK 


A  Noiseless  Air   Compressor 

Jt  Triumph  In  Pneumatic  Engineering 


UNEQUALLED 

for  Big 

Hotels 

Office  Buildings 

Sanitariums 

Hospitals,  etc. 

and 

where 

quietness 

is  imperative 


UNRIVALLED 

for  ALL 

Manufacturing 

Granite  Sheds 

Quarries 

Foundries 

Well  Pumping 

New  Fields,  etc. 

and  all  purposes 

where  requirements 

are  Most  Exacting 


Air  Compressors--A.ll   Sizes--All  Types 
We  Solicit  Your  Inquiries 

Bury  Compressor  Co.,  Erie,  Pa. 


OUR  MONTHLY  LIST  OF 

TECHNICAL  BOOKS 

WILL 

Keep  You  Posted  on  the  New  Books 


SEND  US  YOUR  NAME  AND  ADDRESS 
We  do  not  make  any  charge  for  this  valuable  information 


SPON  &  CHAMBERLAIN 

Importers  and  Publishers  of  Technical   Books 
123-125  LIBERTY  ST.,  NEW  YORK,  U.S.A. 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


IOOM  11/86  Series  9482 


Of  CAUFORNIA     o 


VW9W9  ViNYS 


